Quantitative and qualitative evaluation of high-intensity sweeteners and sweetener mixtures

High intensity sweeteners were evaluated for sweetness and bitternessintensity using time-intensity scaling. Mean intensities of50:50 mixtures as well as the single sweeteners were used tocompute predicted scores which were compared to the observedscores as a means of evaluating additivity in the mixtures.Concentration-dependent effects of subadditivity, additivityand hyperadditivity were observed within some sweetener pairs,but these did not follow any consistent pattern across sweeteners.Synergy, a special case of hyperadditivity evaluated by comparingpredicted to observed scores, was seen in mixtures of aspartameand acesulfame-K at all concentrations. Aspartame/saccharinblends were synergistic only at the lowest concentration tested,despite the structural similarity between acesulfame-K and saccharin.Blends of sucrose/aspartame and acesulfame-K/saccharin did notexhibit synergy. Comparisons based on ratings of initial sweetnessrather than the whole time-intensity curve, reflected previousfindings of synergy in some sweetener pairs.     

Altitude acclimatization attenuates plasma ammonia accumulation during submaximal exercise

This study examined the effects of acclimatization to 4,300 m altitude on changes in plasma ammonia concentrations with 30 min of submaximal [75% maximal O2 uptake (VO2max)] cycle exercise. Human test subjects were divided into a sedentary (n = 6) and active group (n = 5). Maximal uptake (VO2max) was determined at sea level and at high altitude (HA; 4,300 m) after acute (t less than 24 h) and chronic (t = 13 days) exposure. The VO2max of both groups decreased 32% with acute HA when compared with sea level. In the sedentary group, VO2max decreased an additional 16% after 13 days of continuous residence at 4,300 m, whereas VO2max in the active group showed no further change. In both sedentary and active subjects, plasma ammonia concentrations were increased (P less than 0.05) over resting levels immediately after submaximal exercise at sea level as well as during acute HA exposure. With chronic HA exposure, the active group showed no increase in plasma ammonia immediately after submaximal exercise, whereas the postexercise ammonia in the sedentary group was elevated but to a lesser extent than at sea level or with acute HA exposure. Thus postexercise plasma ammonia concentration was decreased with altitude acclimatization when compared with ammonia concentrations following exercise performed at the same relative intensity at sea level or acute HA. This decrease in ammonia accumulation may contribute to enhanced endurance performance and altered substrate utilization with exercise following acclimatization to altitude.     

Selective inhibition of sweetness by the sodium salt of +/-2-(4-methoxyphenoxy)propanoic acid.

The purpose of this study was to determine the degree to which the sodium salt of +/-2-(4-methoxyphenoxy)propanoic acid (Na-PMP) reduced sweet intensity ratings of 15 sweeteners in mixtures. Na-PMP has been approved for use in confectionary/frostings, soft candy and snack products in the USA at concentrations up to 150 p.p.m. A trained panel evaluated the effect of Na-PMP on the intensity of the following 15 sweeteners: three sugars (fructose, glucose, sucrose), three terpenoid glycosides (monoammonium glycyrrhizinate, rebaudioside-A, stevioside), two dipeptide derivatives (alitame, aspartame), two N-sulfonylamides (acesulfame-K, sodium saccharin), two polyhydric alcohols (mannitol, sorbitol), 1 dihydrochalcone (neohesperidin dihydrochalcone), one protein (thaumatin) and one sulfamate (sodium cyclamate). Sweeteners were tested at concentrations isosweet with 2.5, 5, 7.5 and 10% sucrose in mixtures with two levels of Na-PMP: 250 and 500 p.p.m. In addition, the 15 sweeteners were tested either immediately or 30 s after a pre-rinse with 500 p.p.m. Na-PMP. In mixtures, Na-PMP at both the 250 and 500 p.p.m. levels significantly blocked sweetness intensity for 12 of the 15 sweeteners. However, when Na-PMP was mixed with three of the 15 sweeteners (monoammonium glycyrrhizinate, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone and thaumatin), there was little reduction in sweetness intensity. Pre-rinsing with Na-PMP both inhibited and enhanced sweetness with the greatest enhancements found for monoammonium glycyrrhizinate, neohesperidin dihydrochalcone and thaumatin, which were not suppressed by Na-PMP in mixtures. The mixture data suggest that Na-PMP is a selective competitive inhibitor of sweet taste. The finding that pre-treatment can produce enhancement may be due to sensitization of sweetener receptors by Na-PMP.     

Interactions between oral chemical irritation, taste and temperature

The oral chemical irritant, capsaicin, at 2, 4 and 8 p.p.m.,was combined in mixtures with sucrose (Experiment 1), sodiumchloride (Experiment 2) and soup (Experiment 3), each evaluatedat two temperatures. These mixtures were rated for their sweetnessand/or saltiness, intensity of burning sensation and total mixtureintensity. In both solution and soup, sweetness was suppressed,whereas saltiness showed only minor suppression in low NaCl,high capsaicin mixtures. The burning sensation produced by capsaicinwas uninfluenced by sucrose, while NaCl increased the burningsensation. Total mixture intensity was entirely determined bycapsaicin concentration in mixtures with sucrose, although NaClcontributed in NaCl/capsaicin mixtures. Varying temperatureinfluenced the burning sensation and total intensity of sucrose/capsaicinmixtures, but did not modulate the effects of capsaicin on taste.Explanations of taste suppression in terms of cognitive andstructural models are examined. The differential effect of capsaicinon sweetness and saltiness is also considered in terms of theirritant properties of NaCl.     

Stimulation of germination of unactivated Bacillus cereus spores by ammonia

Inclusion of ammonia in germinant mixtures containing L-alanine and inosine stimulated germination of unactivated Bacillus cereus spores at rates equal to those obtained using heat-activated spores without ammonia. D-Alanine had little effect on germination of heat-activated spores, but severely inhibited germination of unactivated spores in the presence of ammonia. Ammonia did not replace the requirement for either L-alanine or inosine: all three compounds were required for rapid germination. Kinetic analysis suggested that the functions of ammonia and L-alanine were more closely related than the functions of ammonia and inosine. With rate-saturating concentrations of L-alanine and inosine, germination rates showed saturation kinetics for ammonia with a Km for NH4Cl of 5 mM. Comparisons of the effects of salts, amines and pH on germination rates suggested that NH4OH rather than NH+4 was the rate-limiting form of ammonia. In comparisons of various strains of B. cereus, stimulation of germination by ammonia occurred in all cases, although spores of most soil isolates germinated more rapidly than B. cereus T spores in the absence of ammonia.     

Sensory integration in citric acid/sucrose mixtures

The scale values of perceived sweetness, sourness and totaltaste intensity of unmixed sucrose, unmixed citric acid andseveral citric acid/sucrose mixtures were assessed, using afunctional measurement approach in combination with a two-stimulusprocedure. The data showed that the scale values obtained werelinear with perceived taste intensity. It was demonstrated thatcitric acid suppresses the sweetness of sucrose and that, inversely,sucrose suppresses the sourness of citric acid. However, thissuppressive effect was not symmetrical in the range of concentrationsused. While the degree of sweetness suppression depended onlyon the citric acid level, the degree of sourness suppressiondepended on the sucrose as well as on the citric acid concentration.With regard to the perceived total taste intensity of citricacid/sucrose mixtures, it was shown that the sum of sweetnessand sourness approximately equals the total taste intensity.The implications of the present findings for the analytic—syntheticcontroversy and for taste interaction theories are discussed.     

GUSTATORY REACTION TIME AND TIME INTENSITY MEASUREMENTS OF TREHALOSE AND SUCROSE SOLUTIONS AND THEIR MIXTURES

Dynamic sweetness perception of commercial food grade trehalose, sucrose solutions and their mixtures were studied for a wide range of concentrations. For gustatory reaction time (GRT), concentrations ranged from 2.3 to 13.8% for sucrose and up to 23.0% for trehalose. For time intensity (T-I) sucrose or trehalose solutions (concentration range 2.3–36.8%) and their combinations (23.0 and 36.8% total solids) were analyzed. Trehalose had bigger GRT along the studied range. Both sugars presented similar values for persistence and times of plateau and to maximum intensity, while a significant difference was observed in intensity and GRT at equal concentrations. Trehalose had longer persistence than sucrose in equi -sweet solutions. Overall sweetness profile of some sucrose solutions (i.e., 29.9% sucrose solution and 0.6 sucrose/trehalose ratio mixture at 36.8% total solids) were perceived as similar to mixtures of sucrose/trehalose or single trehalose solutions, which suggests the possibility of sugar replacement without completely modifying sweetness perception.

PRACTICAL APPLICATIONS

It has been suggested that trehalose may be a potential substitute for sucrose and other sugars used in food formulation because, although its chemical structure is very similar to that of sucrose, it is more stable at low pH and high temperatures. It is not involved in caramelization and does not participate in Maillard reaction with amino acids/proteins. In order to fully establish the potential of trehalose as a functional replacement of sucrose we have determined the sweetness dynamic profile (gustatory reaction time and time-intensity curves) of trehalose solutions and sucrose/trehalose solutions; this aspect is needed for adequately replacing (partially or totally) sucrose in food systems.     

An assessment of binary mixture interactions for nine sweeteners

Binary mixtures of acesulfame K, aspartame, sodium cyclamate,fructose, glucose, stevioside, sodium saccharin, sucrose andxylitol were assessed using factorial mixture designs. A simpleadditive model was used to generate predictions for the sweetnessof the mixtures and these predicted responses were comparedto the observed sweetness ratings of the mixtures. It was foundthat the mixtures tended to exhibit superadditivity at low concentrations,additivity at intermediate concentrations and subadditivityat high concentrations. Synergistic and suppressive effectsin the mixtures were evaluated by comparing mixture responsesto the sweetness ratings of ‘self-mixtures’. Self-mixturedata were generated by treating a mixture of a substance withitself as if it were a mixture of two different substances.Synergism was defined as a mixture response that was greaterthan the sweetness of the component self-mixtures, and suppressionwas defined as a mixture response that was less than the sweetnessof the component self-mixtures. Of the 31 binary mixtures studied,18 showed synergism, two showed suppression and 11 did not differsignificantly from their components. It is hypothesized thatmultiple sweetness receptors or release from bitter suppressionmay account for the synergistic effects.     

Binary taste mixture interactions in prop non-tasters, medium-tasters and super-tasters

It is generally assumed that the mutual, but asymmetric, suppression of the components in binary taste mixtures is an invariant property of the human psychophysical response to such mixtures. However, taste intensities have been shown to vary as a function of individual differences in sensitivity, indexed by the perceived bitterness of 6-n-propylthiouracil (PROP). To determine if these variations in taste perception influence taste mixture interactions, groups of PROP super-, medium- and non-tasters assessed four binary taste mixtures: sweet-bitter [sucrose/quinine hydrochloride (QHCl)], sweet-sour (sucrose/citric acid), salty-bitter (NaCl/QHCl) and salty-sour (NaCl/citric acid). In each experiment, subjects received factorial combinations of four levels of each of two tastants and rated individual taste intensities and overall mixture intensity. For each taste quality, super-tasters typically gave higher ratings than either medium- or non-tasters, who tended not to differ. There were also group differences in the interactions of the mixtures' components. Super-tasters rated the overall intensity of the mixtures, most likely reflecting integration of the taste components, as greater than medium- and non-tasters, who again showed few differences. In sweet-bitter mixtures, non-tasters failed to show the suppression of sweetness intensity by the highest QHCl concentration that was evident in super- and medium-tasters. These data show that the perception of both tastes and binary taste mixture interactions varies as a function of PROP taster status, but that this may only be evident when three taster groups are clearly distinguished from one another.     

Application of the U and gamma' models in binary sweet taste mixtures

The U and Gamma' models of sensory interactions, successfully applied in olfaction for several years, are tested here using data from published studies on sweetness. The models are subsequently tested on new data obtained in studies of binary mixtures of four sodium sulfamates. The U model allows for the estimation of a global interaction, whereas the Gamma' model allows for the distinction between that which is due to an intrinsic interaction in the mixture itself and that which may be due to the power function exponents in the mixture. The models give satisfactory predictions for observed phenomena of sweet taste suppression, synergism or pure additivity. Additionally, they appear to be more suitable than other models recently applied in taste, particularly the equiratio model. Application of the models to the sulfamate mixtures, reveals additivity for sodium cyclohexylsulfamate (cyclamate)/potassium cyclohexylsulfamate and sodium cyclohexylsulfamate/sodium exo-2-norbornylsulfamate, respectively; whereas for sodium cyclohexylsulfamate/sodium 3-bromophenylsulfamate, the models revealed a slight hypo addition which is simply due to the dissimilarity values of the power function exponents of the components.     

Qualitative and aqualitative intensity components of odour mixtures

The perception of the intensity of components of odorous mixturesis related to the overall mixture intensity in a complex mannerwhich has not so far been adequately modelled. Hypoadditivity,where the total perceived intensity of a mixture is less thanthe sum of the component intensities which arise when the substancesare presented in pure form at equivalent chemical concentrations,has been known for many years. An experiment on series of 56mixtures of amyl butyrate and bergamot at supra-threshold concentrationsfound that the total qualitatively unspecified intensity ofsuch mixtures can be greater than the sum of the identifiedcomponent intensities as judged in the context of the mixture.To reconcile an apparent contradiction, and to bring into onepsychophysical framework results from diverse procedures, amodel of mixed qualitative and aqualitative odour intensityis advanced, incorporating some evidence on the difference betweendetection and recognition processes. Each component in a mixturemay, in this theory, both partially mask the qualitative intensityof the other, and simultaneously convert some part of the other'sintensity into an aqualitative form.     

基于物种敏感性分布的微囊藻毒素与氮污染水体生态风险评估

应用物种敏感性分布(SSD)方法,可正向和反向评估物种的生态风险及确定保护物种的污染物浓度阈值,为水体生态风险管理提供依据.本文通过采集淡水生物毒性数据,构建SSD方程,在95%物种保护基础上评估微囊藻毒素、氨氮和亚硝态氮对淡水生物的生态风险浓度阈值(HC₅)和复合生态风险,以及不同暴露浓度下的潜在影响比例(PAF).结果表明: 微囊藻毒素对淡水生物的HC₅值为19.22 μg·L^-1,其水生态风险高于氨氮(HC₅ 6583.94 μg·L^-1)和亚硝态氮(HC₅ 334.33 μg·L^-1).不同类别生物对微囊藻毒素和氨氮、亚硝态氮的敏感性随暴露浓度不同存在差异.当微囊藻毒素与亚硝态氮的浓度低于临界浓度125.04、2989.40 μg·L^-1时,甲壳类对微囊藻毒素敏感性高于鱼类,对亚硝态氮敏感性则低于鱼类,而高于临界值其物种敏感性呈相反效应,但氨氮所引起的物种敏感性差异不显著.在代表性水体中,复合生态风险高于单一污染风险,微囊藻毒素、氨氮、亚硝态氮对全部物种的复合潜在影响比例msPAF为2.6%～5.6%,且太湖和红枫湖已超过HC₅生态风险阈值.     

Further evidence for the usefulness of the salivary testosterone radioimmunoassay in the assessment of androgenicity in man in basal and stimulated conditions

Since correct assessment of testicular function and androgenic status in humans requires multiple sampling, a sensitive and accurate radioimmunoassay (RIA) of testosterone (T) was established for male and female saliva samples. This easily collected biological fluid, which contains nonprotein-bound T, may represent an attractive alternative or a complement to total plasma T assays. In saliva samples from 5 normal males, a clear circadian rhythm was observed, and morning concentrations (135 +/- 31 pg/ml) were significantly higher (p less than 0.02) than evening samples (85 +/- 23 pg/ml). In 11 normal females, morning saliva levels were 12.8 +/- 1.8 pg/ml. The levels of T in male saliva, in response to both exogenous T administration (100 mg i.m.) and HCG stimulation (2 X 2,000 IU i.m.), accurately reflected the changes observed in plasma T, and the magnitude of increase in T levels was clearly greater in saliva than in plasma samples during the intramuscular administration of the long-acting T preparation. In males, significant correlations were observed between salivary and plasma T concentrations in morning samples (r = 0.61, p less than 0.01), following HCG stimulation (r = 0.89, p less than 0.05) and during T administration (r = 0.87, p less than 0.05). In women, the correlation at 8 a.m. was also significant (r = 0.82, p less than 0.05).     

The use of steam/air mixtures for partially sterilizing soils infested with cucumber root rot pathogens

An apparatus for experimentally heating glasshouse soils in situ with steam/ air mixtures is described. Covering soil with a rigid hood enabled mixtures to be introduced at ground level at pressures sufficient to give reasonable rates of heat penetration. Heat-treating soils (66–100° C), in which cucumbers had previously grown poorly, increased yields of subsequent crops from (1) 33 to 39/43 kg/plot of four plants and (2) 95 to 178/191 kg/plot. These increases were associated with the eradication of a dark sclerotial pathogenic fungus causing tap root rot. Increasing partial sterilization temperatures increased concentrations of soluble and exchangeable soil Mn from 4 p.p.m. in unheated soil to 9, 43, 87 and 108 p.p.m. at 66, 77, 88 and 100° C respectively, these differences being paralleled by concentrations of Mn in leaf laminae. Cucumbers grown in soils sterilized at 88° C yielded 8 % more than those in soils treated at 100° C.     

The genotoxicity of priority polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in complex mixtures

Risk assessment of complex environmental samples suffers from difficulty in identifying toxic components, inadequacy of available toxicity data, and a paucity of knowledge about the behavior of geno(toxic) substances in complex mixtures. Lack of information about the behavior of toxic substances in complex mixtures is often avoided by assuming that the toxicity of a mixture is simply the sum of the expected effects from each mixture component, i.e. no synergistic or antagonistic interactions. Although this assumption is supported by research investigating non-genotoxic end-points, the literature describing the behavior of genotoxic substances in complex mixtures is sparse and, occasionally, contradictory. In this study, the results of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) analyses on freshwater bivalves were used to prepare realistic mixtures containing up to 16 PAHs. The SOS genotoxicity of the mixtures and each component were then assessed in an effort to evaluate the additivity of PAH genotoxicity. At nominal PAH concentrations above 1 microg/ml, observed genotoxic responses were far lower than those predicted under the assumption of additivity. At nominal concentrations below 0.75 microg/ml, differences are smaller and occasionally negligible, indicating that the genotoxicity of unsubstituted homocyclic PAHs is additive or slightly less than additive. Other researchers who have investigated the mutagenicity, carcinogenicity, and DNA binding activity of mixtures containing unsubstituted homocyclic PAHs have also reported additive effects. Therefore, the mutagenic risk posed by simple, well-characterized mixtures of priority PAHs can reasonably be estimated as the sum of the risks posed by the mixture components. Current data indicate that less-than-additive effects likely result from saturation of metabolic pathways needed to activate mutagenic PAHs.     

The effect of selenium on the function of the anion transporter (Band 3) of erythrocyte membranes.

The transport activity of Band 3 of spectrin-stripped inside-out erythrocyte membrane vesicles (IOVs) or resealed ghosts was enhanced in the presence of trace amounts of Na2SeO3 (0.2-0.5 p.p.m.); however, at higher concentrations of Na2SeO3 (> 4.0 p.p.m.), an inverse result was obtained. Reassociation of spectrin with IOVs has no effect either on the transport activity of Band 3 or on the enhancement of its activity by Na2SeO3. Sulfhydryl reagents (p-chloromercuribenzoic acid and N-ethylmaleimide) could also inhibit Band 3 activity and eliminate the selenium effect. It is suggested that SH groups are involved in anion transport of Band 3 and that the selenium effect is based on the interaction of SH groups of Band 3 with Na2SeO3.     

Temporal integration of pungency

Four experiments explored possible temporal summation in olfactionand the common chemical sense. In one experiment, participantsjudged the perceived magnitude of various concentrations anddurations (1.25–3.75 s) of the pungent odorant ammoniaand the nonpungent odorant isoamyl butyrate. The perceived magnitudeof ammonia increased during an inhalation whereas the magnitudeof isoamyl butyrate did not. Time-intensity trading relationsfor ammonia indicated nearly perfect temporal summation. Inanother experiment, modulation of the concentration of ammoniaduring an inhalation led to assessments of perceived magnitudethat confirmed the high degree of temporal summation seen inthe first experiment. That is, approximately equal time-integratedmass of inhaled ammonia led to approximately equal perceivedintensity. A third experiment indicated that temporal summationfor ammonia arose from its pungency rather than from its odor,a fourth that trigeminally-mediated reflex apnea in responseto ammonia also exhibits temporal summation. The degree of temporalsummation measured with the reflex came very close to that assessedpsychophysically. When stimulated with ammonia, the common chemicalsense behaves more like a totalmass detector than a concentrationdetector. The investigation raises the possibility that theshortterm sensory reaction to most pungent stimuli may followthis simple rule.