Food limitation of asexual reproduction in a spionid polychaete

Summary

The rate of asexual fragmentation in the spionid polychaete Pygospio elegans is shown to increase in the presence of augmented food levels and is a density-dependent response. Asexual reproduction does not occur when the animals are reproducing sexually.     

Polymorphism in developmental mode and its effect on population genetic structure of a spionid polychaete, Pygospio elegans

Population genetic structure of sedentary marine species is expected to be shaped mainly by the dispersal ability of their larvae. Long-lived planktonic larvae can connect populations through migration and gene flow, whereas species with nondispersive benthic or direct-developing larvae are expected to have genetically differentiated populations. Poecilogonous species producing different larval types are ideal when studying the effect of developmental mode on population genetic structure and connectivity. In the spionid polychaete Pygospio elegans, different larval types have been observed between, and sometimes also within, populations. We used microsatellite markers to study population structure of European P. elegans from the Baltic Sea (BS) and North Sea (NS). We found that populations with planktonic larvae had higher genetic diversity than did populations with benthic larvae. However, this pattern may not be related to developmental mode, since in P. elegans, developmental mode may be associated with geography. Benthic larvae were more commonly seen in the brackish BS and planktonic larvae were predominant in the NS, although both larval types also are found from both areas. Significant isolation-by-distance (IBD) was found overall and within regions. Most of the pair-wise F(ST) comparisons among populations were significant, although some geographically close populations with planktonic larvae were found to be genetically similar. However, these results, together with the pattern of IBD, autocorrelation within populations, as well as high estimated local recruitment, suggest that dispersal is limited in populations with planktonic larvae as well as in those with benthic larvae. The decrease in salinity between the NS and BS causes a barrier to gene flow in many marine species. In P. elegans, low, but significant, differentiation was detected between the NS and BS (3.34% in AMOVA), but no clear transition zone was observed, indicating that larvae are not hampered by the change in salinity.     

Proteomic analysis during larval development and metamorphosis of the spionid polychaete Pseudopolydora vexillosa

Background  

While the larval-juvenile transition (metamorphosis) in the spionid polychaete Pseudopolydora vexillosa involves gradual morphological changes and does not require substantial development of juvenile organs, the opposite occurs in the barnacle Balanus amphitrite. We hypothesized that the proteome changes during metamorphosis in the spionids are less drastic than that in the barnacles. To test this, proteomes of pre-competent larvae, competent larvae (ready to metamorphose), and juveniles of P. vexillosa were compared using 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis (2-DE), and they were then compared to those of the barnacle.     

Observations of serotonin and FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity in palp sensory structures and the anterior nervous system of spionid polychaetes

Evidence suggests that ciliated sensory structures on the feeding palps of spionid polychaetes may function as chemoreceptors to modulate deposit-feeding activity. To investigate the probable sensory nature of these ciliated cells, we used immunohistochemistry, epi-fluorescence, and confocal laser scanning microscopy to label and image sensory cells, nerves, and their organization relative to the anterior central nervous system in several spionid polychaete species. Antibodies directed against acetylated alphatubulin were used to label the nervous system and detail the innervation of palp sensory cells in all species. In addition, the distribution of serotonin (5-HT) and FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity was compared in the spionid polychaetes Dipolydora quadrilobata and Pygospio elegans. The distribution of serotonin immunoreactivity was also examined in the palps of Polydora cornuta and Streblospio benedicti. Serotonin immunoreactivity was concentrated in cells underlying the food groove of the palps, in the palp nerves, and in the cerebral ganglion. FMRFamide-like immunoreactivity was associated with the cerebral ganglia, nuchal organs and palp nerves, and also with the perikarya of ciliated sensory cells on the palps.     

Larval development and metamorphic behaviour of the subtropical spionid polychaete Pseudopolydora vexillosa

Although newly described, Pseudopolydora vexillosa is one of the most conspicuous surface-feeding spioniform polychaetes in subtropical waters. This is the first report on larval growth and metamorphosis of P. vexillosa. Newly hatched (3-chaetigers stage) larvae of P. vexillosa reached metamorphic competence at 12-17 chaetigers stage when fed with Chaetoceros gracilis or Dunaliella tertiolecta at a concentration of ∼ 10⁵ cells ml^− 1 for 6 to 8 days at 32 psu and 27 °C. Larvae on these two diets achieved comparable levels, of approximately 70% metamorphosis. On the other hand, larvae fed with Isochrysis galbana or starved in 0.22 μm filtered seawater never reached competence during the 10 days of study. The effect of organic matter on larval substrate selection was examined using glass beads, manipulated sediments and natural sediments. A significantly higher percentage of larvae metamorphosed on glass beads that had been submerged in unfiltered natural seawater for 5 days as compared to the control; when manipulating the organic content of sediment as a substratum, significantly more larvae metamorphosed in 100% natural sediment, compared with 0%, 25%, 50%, and 75% natural sediment mixed with different portions of ashed sediment. Surprisingly, with natural undisturbed surface sediment sampled along a transect perpendicular to a sewage discharge site, these laboratory bioassays demonstrate that the larvae of P. vexillosa are capable of responding to sedimentary cues in complex ways to find a habitat suitable for metamorphosis and survival.     

Morphology of anterior regeneration in two spionid polychaete species: implications for feeding efficiency

Abstract. In marine soft‐sediment habitats, tissue loss by infuanal invertebrates can provide significant energetic input to higher trophic levels, have substantial impacts on individual behavior, growth, and fecundity, and resulting changes in bioturbation rates can secondarily affect community dynamics. The degree to which a community is affected by such sublethal predation depends in part on whether injured individuals can regenerate and on the speed at which they do so. Previously, we demonstrated differences in the rate of anterior segment and palp regeneration by the spionid polychaetes Pygospio elegans and Dipolydora quadrilobata. The current study examined the morphology of the anterior segment and palp regeneration in these species using scanning electron microscopy (SEM) and indirect immunohistochemistry with confocal laser scanning microscopy at 3, 6, 9, and 12 d post‐ablation. Antibodies for acetylated α‐tubulin and the neural tetrapeptide FMRFamide were used to label the regenerating nervous system. SEM revealed that the morphology of anterior tissue regeneration was similar for both species, but the ciliated food groove tended to form sooner on palps in P. elegans than on those of D. quadrilobata. In both species, palp regeneration and ciliated food groove formation were faster when only palps were removed. A shortened ciliated food groove is likely to reduce particle contact and transport efficiency in suspension and deposit feeding. Regenerating palp nerves were initially visible at 3 d following ablation of palps only, but at 6 d following ablation of five anterior segments. Following ablation of anterior segments, the regenerating nervous system was largely complete by 9 d, nuchal organs were innervated by 6 d, and processes of palp sensory cells were visible at 12 d. Contact chemoreception by sensory cells on the palps may be diminished during the early stages of regeneration, but chemoreception of waterborne cues via the nuchal organ should not.     

Feeding responses to particle-bound cues by a deposit-feeding spionid polychaete, Dipolydora quadrilobata (Jacobi 1883)

In marine soft-sediment habitats, chemical sensing by deposit-feeding organisms most likely plays a critical role in feeding behavior, yet, few specifics about this role and its ecological implications are known. We show that several particle-bound chemical cues stimulate feeding activity of a spionid polychaete Dipolydora quadrilobata (Jacobi 1883). Using glass beads as a proxy for sediment, we tested for feeding responses to a selected number of potential cues that might be used to indicate food availability or quality. We presented two sets of beads to individual intact worms: one with and one without covalently bound compounds such as single amino acids, mixtures of amino acids, and single simple sugars. Worms were exposed to the beads under slow flowing seawater so that any dissolved cues were flushed from the test chamber. Each worm was videotaped for 15 min immediately following the addition of beads, and these records were scored for the time the worm spent in a variety of behaviors. Responses to beads with and without cues were compared to identify compounds as stimulatory, inhibitory, or inactive. Five of the seven particle-bound cues tested significantly increased feeding activity, and none of those tested were found to be inhibitory.     

A contribution to the nomenclature of peripheral sensory structures (sensory nerve endings)

The author has shown the variety in denominating peripheral sensory structures serving for mechanoreception, nociception, thermoreception and chemoreception. To term peripheral sensory structures as nerve endings is considered particularly unsuitable because this denomination is based only on morphogenesis of the ending. From the view of system approach, the peripheral sensory structures forms one unit formed by two or more structural subsystems. Even though the axon or its dendritic zone has the leading role in this unit, the function of the whole formation is influenced (modulated) by further non-nervous components. Although the causes of velocity of adaptation in some sensory structures have been already explained (e.g. in lamellar corpuscles with a thick capsule), different adaptation velocity of Merkel complexes in reptiles and birds on one side, and in mammals on the other, with the same structure has not been clear up to now. From the view of system approach as well as of the share of non-nervous components in the activity of the whole sensory structure, the author has suggested to introduce the term "sensory nerve formation" for peripheral sensory structures serving for mechanoreception, nociception, thermoreception and chemoreception. The term "complex sensory nerve formation" is suggested for more complex sensory structures in which either more sensory nerve formations of the same kind (Pinkus tactile dics) or different kinds of sensory formations (Eimer organ of a mole) are connected constantly or in which the connection of sensory nerve formations with other supporting structures (hairs, feathers) occurs.     

Feeding and growth kinetics of the planktotrophic larvae of the spionid polychaete Polydora ciliata (Johnston)

We studied the effect of food concentration on the feeding and growth rates of different larval developmental stages of the spionid polychaete Polydora ciliata. We estimated larval feeding rates as a function of food abundance by incubation experiments with two different preys, presented separately, the cryptophyte Rhodomonas salina (ESD = 9.7 µm) and the diatom T.weissflogii (ESD = 12.9 µm). Additionally, we determined larval growth rates and gross growth efficiencies (GGE) as a function of R. salina concentration.P.ciliata larvae exhibited a type II functional response. Clearance rates decreased continuously with increasing food concentration, and ingestion rates increased up to a food saturation concentration above which ingestion remained fairly constant. The food concentration at which feeding became saturated varied depending on the food type, from ca. 2 µg C mL^− 1 when feeding on T. weissflogii to ca. 5 µg C mL^− 1 when feeding on R. salina. The maximum carbon specific ingestion rates were very similar for both prey types and decreased with increasing larval size/age, from 0.67 d^− 1 for early larvae to 0.45 d^− 1 for late stage larvae. Growth rates as a function of food concentration (R. salina) followed a saturation curve; the maximum specific growth rate decreased slightly during larval development from 0.22 to 0.17 d^− 1. Maximum growth rates were reached at food concentrations ranging from 2.5 to 1.4 µg C mL^− 1 depending on larval size. The GGE, estimated as the slope of the regression equations relating specific growth rates versus specific ingestion rates, were 0.29 and 0.16 for early and intermediate larvae, respectively. The GGE, calculated specifically for each food level, decreased as the food concentration increased, from 0.53 to 0.33 for early larvae and from 0.27 to 0.20 for intermediate larval stages.From an ecological perspective, we suggest that there is a trade-off between larval feeding/growth kinetics and larval dispersal. Natural selection may favor that some meroplanktonic larvae, such as P.ciliata, present low filtration efficiency and low growth rates despite inhabiting environments with high food availability. This larval performance allows a planktonic development sufficiently long to ensure efficient larval dispersion.     

Lox6, a leech Dfd ortholog, is expressed in the central nervous system and in peripheral sensory structures

 Sequence analysis of a newly isolated Hirudo medicinalis cDNA containing an Antennapedia (Antp)-class homeobox suggests that the corresponding gene, Lox6, is an ortholog of the Drosophila Deformed (Dfd) gene. In situ hybridization of whole-mounted preparations shows that the major sites of Lox6 expression during embryogenesis are the central nervous system (CNS) and the peripheral sensory system. Lox6 mRNA can be detected in a subset of neurons in each ganglion from the subesophageal ganglion (RG2) to the most posterior ganglion, with the highest level of expression seen in RG3. Peripherally, Lox6 is expressed principally in the primordia of the sensillae and in the eyes. This pattern of expression of Lox6 suggests that one of its functions may be to contribute to the diversification of neuronal phenotypes. Received: 16 August 1997/Accepted: 20 December 1997     

Monoamine-containing structures in the intestines of bivalve molluscs and a polychaete annelid revealed by fluorescence histochemistry

Summary Monoamine-containing elements in the intestines of Bivalvia and Polychaeta species have been found by use of histochemical fluorescence methods according to Falck and Furness. Catecholamine-containing perikarya and fibers are seen within the epithelium and subepithelial layers of the midgut of the bivalves Mytilus edulis, Mya arenaria, Arctica islandica, as well as the polychaete Harmothoe imbricata. In addition, intraepithelial cell bodies and fibers containing serotonin-like substance are present in Mytilus edulis. Results obtained with the Furness method, applied earlier to vertebrates, correlate with those obtained with the Falck method.     

Identification of novel electroconvulsive shock-induced and activity-dependent genes in the rat brain

Electroconvulsive shock (ECS) has been used as an effective treatment for patients suffering from major depression disorders and schizophrenia. However, the exact mechanisms underlying the action of ECS are poorly understood. Using high-density oligonucleotide microarrays, we identified 60 ECS-induced genes whose gene products are involved in the neuronal signaling, neuritogenesis and tissue remodeling. In situ hybridization and depolarization-dependent expression assay were performed to characterize 4 genes (lysyl oxidase, Ab1-046, SOX11, and T-type calcium channel 1G subunit) which have not yet been reported to be induced by ECS. Interestingly, the induction of these genes was observed mainly in the dentate gyrus of hippocampal formation and piriform cortex, where ECS-induced neural activation is highlighted, and depolarization of cultured cortical neurons also induced the expression of these genes. Taken together, our results suggest that therapeutic actions of ECS may be manifested by the activity-dependent induction of genes related to the plastic changes of the brain such as neuronal signaling neuritogenesis, and tissue remodeling.     

Increased lipid droplet accumulation associated with a peripheral sensory neuropathy

Hereditary sensory neuropathy type 1 (HSN-1) is an autosomal dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by missense mutations in the SPTLC1 gene. The SPTLC1 protein is part of the SPT enzyme which is a ubiquitously expressed, critical and thus highly regulated endoplasmic reticulum bound membrane enzyme that maintains sphingolipid concentrations and thus contributes to lipid metabolism, signalling, and membrane structural functions. Lipid droplets are dynamic organelles containing sphingolipids and membrane bound proteins surrounding a core of neutral lipids, and thus mediate the intracellular transport of these specific molecules. Current literature suggests that there are increased numbers of lipid droplets and alterations of lipid metabolism in a variety of other autosomal dominant neurodegenerative diseases, including Alzheimer’s and Parkinson’s disease. This study establishes for the first time, a significant increase in the presence of lipid droplets in HSN-1 patient-derived lymphoblasts, indicating a potential connection between lipid droplets and the pathomechanism of HSN-1. However, the expression of adipophilin (ADFP), which has been implicated in the regulation of lipid metabolism, was not altered in lipid droplets from the HSN-1 patient-derived lymphoblasts. This appears to be the first report of increased lipid body accumulation in a peripheral neuropathy, suggesting a fundamental molecular linkage between a number of neurodegenerative diseases.     

Duplication of a peripheral sensory neuron in the cockroach Periplaneta americana

Summary We have recently examined the electrophysiology and ultrastructure of approximately 100 tactile spines from the metathoracic legs of adult cockroaches. In only one animal the single sensory neuron that innervates the spine was replaced with a pair of apparently identical neurons which we believe were both functional. As far as we are aware this is the first reported study of unprovoked duplication in a peripherally-located insect sensory neuron.Supported by the Canadian Medical Research Council and the Alberta Heritage Foundation for Medical Research     

Identification of sensory neurons supplying receptors in lingual muscles of the rat: histochemical and retrograde labeling study with horseradish peroxidase.

Sensory innervation of lingual musculature was studied in young adult Wistar rats using retrograde labeling by horseradish peroxidase (HRP) and combined silver impregnation and acetylcholinesterase (AchE) methods. Intra-lingual injection of HRP resulted in labeling of neuronal somata in the trigeminal, superior vagal, and second cervical spinal (C2) ganglia. When HRP was directly applied to the proximal stump of severed hypoglossal nerve, labeling occurred only in the cervical and superior vagal ganglia. Morphometric analysis revealed that the labeled neurons were of the small-sized category in all ganglia. However, in the trigeminal and C2 ganglia, labeling occurred also among the medium-sized neurons. Combined silver and AchE preparations from lingual muscles revealed the absence of typical muscle spindles. Instead, there were free and spiral nerve terminals in the interstitium, and epilemmal knob-like or bouton-like endings surrounding non-encapsulated muscle fibers. These terminals showed AchE -ve reaction in contrast to the motor ones. Few ganglionic cells were scattered along the hypoglossal nerve with uniform AchE +ve reaction in their perikarya. This indicates that medium-sized neurons in the trigeminal and C2 ganglia, and probably sensory neurons along the hypoglossal nerve mediate lingual muscle sensibility perceived by atypical sensory terminals.     

Use of 3-hydroxyphenylacetylene for activity-dependent, fluorescent labeling of bacteria that degrade toluene via 3-methylcatechol

3-hydroxyphenylacetylene (3-HPA) served as a novel, activity-dependent, fluorogenic and chromogenic probe for bacterial enzymes known to degrade toluene via meta ring fission of the intermediate, 3-methylcatechol. By this direct physiological analysis, cells grown with an aromatic substrate to induce the synthesis of toluene-degrading enzymes were fluorescently labeled.