Heat shock suppresses the permeability transition in rat liver mitochondria

Heat shock proteins inhibit apoptotic and necrotic cell death in various cell types. However, the specific mechanism underlying protection by heat shock proteins remains unclear. To test the hypothesis that heat shock proteins inhibit cell death by blocking opening of mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) pores, mitochondria from heat-preconditioned rat livers were isolated by differential centrifugation. Heat shock inhibited MPT pore opening induced by 50 microm CaCl(2) plus 5 microm HgCl(2) or 1 microm mastoparan and by 200 microm CaCl(2) alone. Half-maximal swelling was delayed 15 min or more after heat shock compared with control. Heat shock also increased the threshold of unregulated (Ca(2+)-independent and cyclosporin A-insensitive) MPT pore opening induced by higher doses of HgCl(2) and mastoparan. Heat shock treatment decreased mitochondrial reactive oxygen species formation by 27% but did not change mitochondrial respiration, membrane potential, Ca(2+) uptake, or total glutathione in mitochondrial and cytosolic extracts of liver. Western blot analysis showed that mitochondrial Hsp25 increased, whereas Hsp10, Hsp60, Hsp70, Hsp75, cyclophilin D, and voltage-dependent anion channel did not change after heat shock. These results indicate that heat shock causes resistance to opening of MPT pores, which may contribute to heat shock protection against cellular injury.     

The permeability transition in heart mitochondria is regulated synergistically by ADP and cyclosporin A.

Heart mitochondria respiring in a sucrose medium containing P(i) show a permeability transition when challenged with Ca2+ and an oxidant such as cumene hydroperoxide. The transition results from the opening of a Ca(2+)-dependent pore and is evidenced by loss of membrane potential (delta psi) and osmotic swelling due to uptake of sucrose and other solutes. In the absence of oxidant, high concentrations of Ca2+ (100-150 microM) are necessary to induce loss of delta psi and initiate swelling. Cyclosporin A delays the loss of delta psi but enhances swelling under these conditions, apparently by promoting better retention of accumulated Ca2+. Cyclosporin A and ADP together restore delta psi in respiring mitochondria that have undergone the permeability transition at levels that are not effective when either is added alone. When the state of the Ca(2+)-dependent pore is assessed using passive osmotic contraction in response to polyethylene glycol (Haworth, R. A., and Hunter, D. R. (1979) Arch. Biochem. Biophys. 195, 460-467), cyclosporin A is found to be a partial inhibitor of solute flow through the open pore. Cyclosporin A decreases the Vmax of passive contraction and increases the Km for Ca2+ without affecting the Hill slope. ADP in the presence of carboxyatractyloside closes the pore almost completely even in the presence of 40 microM Ca2+. ADP shows mixed type inhibition of the Ca(2+)-dependent pore, and cyclosporin A increases the affinity of the pore for ADP. It is concluded that cyclosporin A and ADP act synergistically to close the Ca(2+)-dependent pore of the mitochondrion and that the pore is probably not formed directly from the adenine nucleotide transporter.     

Virus-induced permeability transition in mitochondria

Isolated rat liver mitochondria undergo permeability transition after supplementation with a suspension of tobacco mosaic virus. Four mitochondrial parameters proved the opening of the permeability transition pore in the inner mitochondrial membrane: increased oxygen consumption, collapse of the membrane potential, release of calcium ions from mitochondria, and high amplitude mitochondrial swelling. All virus-induced changes in mitochondria were prevented by cyclosporin A. These effects were not observed if the virus was treated with EGTA or disrupted by heating. Protein component of the virus particle in the form of 20S aggregate A-protein, or helical polymer, as well as supernatant of the heat-disrupted virus sample, had no effect on mitochondrial functioning. Electron microscopy revealed the direct interaction of the virus particles with isolated mitochondria. The possible role of the mitochondrial permeability transition pore in virus-induced apoptosis is discussed.     

Retinol induces permeability transition and cytochrome c release from rat liver mitochondria

Biological actions of retinoids on modulation of cellular gene expression by nuclear receptors are widely known. Recently, extra-nuclear effects of retinoids have been proposed, but remain to be better elucidated. Considering that retinoids induce apoptosis in tumor cells by an unknown mechanism, and that mitochondria play a key role in controlling apoptosis via cytochrome c (cyt c) release, we exposed rat liver mitochondria to 3-40 microM of retinol (vitamin A), and observed that retinol causes mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) and cyt c release, in a concentration-dependent pattern. Increased superoxide anion generation and lipoperoxidation were also observed. Cyclosporin A or trolox co-administration reverted all parameters tested. In view of these findings, we conclude that retinol induces mitochondria oxidative damage, leading to MPT and cyt c release by opening of the permeability transition pore, thus suggesting a putative mechanism of apoptosis activation by retinol.     

Methylmercury induces the opening of the permeability transition pore in rat liver mitochondria

Interactions of methylmercury (CH(3)HgCl) with non-energized mitochondria from rat liver (non-respiring mitochondria) have been investigated in this paper. It has been shown that CH(3)HgCl induces swelling in mitochondria suspended in a sucrose medium. Swelling has also been induced by detergent compounds and by phenylarsine, a chemical compound which induces opening of the permeant transition pore (MTP). Opening of the MTP is inhibited by means of cyclosporine A. Results indicate that the swelling induced by CH(3)HgCl, as in the case of phenylarsine, is inhibited by cyclosporine A and Mg(2+), while swelling induced by detergent compounds is not cyclosporine sensitive. This comparison suggests that CH(3)HgCl induces opening of a permeability transition pore (MTP). Since the opening of an MTP induces cell death, this interaction with MTP could be one of the causes of toxicity of CH(3)HgCl.     

Zinc as an inducer of the membrane permeability transition in rat liver mitochondria

It is shown that 2-10 microM Zn2+ induces swelling of rat liver mitochondria incubated in a buffered sucrose medium either with valinomycin or with FCCP, Ca2+, ionophore A23187, oligomycin, and nigericin. This swelling was associated with the release of GSH from mitochondria. Both processes were sensitive to known inhibitors of the mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), cyclosporin A, and Mg2+. Mitochondrial swelling induced by Zn2+ was also inhibited by rotenone, antymycin A, N-ethylmaleimide, butylhydroxytoluene, and spermine, whereas it was stimulated by tert-butyl hydroperoxide, diamide, and monobromobimane. It did not require the addition of phosphate. The same sensitivity to pH of the mitochondrial swelling induced by Zn2+ and by phenylarsine oxide suggests the same site of the interaction, namely, thiol groups. The ability of Zn2+ to induce mitochondrial swelling gradually decreased along with its increasing concentration above 10 microM. It is concluded that micromolar Zn2+ induces the MPT presumably by the interaction with cysteinyl residues. This process is independent of the mitochondrial membrane potential.     

The regulation of extramitochondrial free calcium ion concentration by rat liver mitochondria

The mechanism whereby rat liver mitochondria regulate the extramitochondrial concentration of free Ca(2+) was investigated. At 30 degrees C and pH7.0, mitochondria can maintain a steady-state pCa(2+) (0) (the negative logarithm of the free extramitochondrial Ca(2+) concentration) of 6.1 (0.8mum). This represents a true steady state, as slight displacements in pCa(2+) (0) away from 6.1 result in net Ca(2+) uptake or efflux in order to restore pCa(2+) (0) to its original value. In the absence of added permeant weak acid, the steady-state pCa(2+) (0) is virtually independent of the Ca(2+) accumulated in the matrix until 60nmol of Ca(2+)/mg of protein has been taken up. The steady-state pCa(2+) (0) is also independent of the membrane potential, as long as the latter parameter is above a critical value. When the membrane potential is below this value, pCa(2+) (0) is variable and appears to be governed by thermodynamic equilibration of Ca(2+) across a Ca(2+) uniport. Permeant weak acids increase, and N-ethylmaleimide decreases, the capacity of mitochondria to buffer pCa(2+) (0) in the region of 6 (1mum-free Ca(2+)) while accumulating Ca(2+). Permeant acids delay the build-up of the transmembrane pH gradient as Ca(2+) is accumulated, and consequently delay the fall in membrane potential to values insufficient to maintain a pCa(2+) (0) of 6. The steady-state pCa(2+) (0) is affected by temperature, incubation pH and Mg(2+). The activity of the Ca(2+) uniport, rather than that of the respiratory chain, is rate-limiting when pCa(2+) (0) is greater than 5.3 (free Ca(2+) less than 5mum). When the Ca(2+) electrochemical gradient is in excess, the activity of the uniport decreases by 2-fold for every 0.12 increase in pCa(2+) (0) (fall in free Ca(2+)). At pCa(2+) (0) 6.1, the activity of the Ca(2+) uniport is kinetically limited to 5nmol of Ca(2+)/min per mg of protein, even when the Ca(2+) electrochemical gradient is large. A steady-state cycling of Ca(2+) through independent influx and efflux pathways provides a model which is kinetically and thermodynamically consistent with the present observations, and which predicts an extremely precise regulation of pCa(2+) (0) by liver mitochondria in vivo.     

Phenylarsine oxide induces the cyclosporin A-sensitive membrane permeability transition in rat liver mitochondria

This paper reports an investigation on the effects of the hydrophobic, bifunctional SH group reagent phenylarsine oxide (PhAsO) on mitochondrial membrane permeability. We show that PhAsO is a potent inducer of the mitochondrial permeability transition in a process which is sensitive to both the oxygen radical scavanger BHT and to cyclosporin A. The PhAsO-induced permeability transition is stimulated by Ca²⁺ but takes place also in the presence of EGTA in a process that maintains its sensitivity to BHT and cyclosporin A. Our findings suggest that, at variance from other known inducers of the permeability transition, PhAsO reacts directly with functional SH groups that are inaccessible to hydrophilic reagents in the absence of Ca²⁺.     

Chenodeoxycholate is a potent inducer of the permeability transition pore in rat liver mitochondria

Several reports support the concept that bile acids may be cytotoxic during cholestatic disease process by causing mitochondrial dysfunction. Here we report additional data and findings aimed at a better understanding of the involvement of the permeability transition pore (PTP) opening in bile acids toxicity. The mitochondrial PTP is implicated as a mediator of cell injury and death in many situations. In the presence of calcium and phosphate, chenodeoxycholic acid (CDCA) induced a permeability transition in freshly isolated rat liver mitochondria, characterized by membrane depolarization, release of matrix calcium, and osmotic swelling. All these events were blocked by cyclosporine A (CyA) and the calcium uniporter inhibitor ruthenium red (RR). The results suggest that CDCA increases the sensitivity of isolated mitochondria in vitro to the calcium-dependent induction of the PTP.     

Influence of aging on membrane permeability transition in brain mitochondria

The mitochondrial inner membrane permeability transition (MPT) plays an important role in the pathophysiology of acute disorders of the central nervous systems, including ischemic and traumatic brain injury, and possibly in neurodegenerative diseases. Opening of the permeability transition pore (PTP) by a combination of abnormally elevated intramitochondrial Ca2+ and oxidative stress induces the collapse of transmembrane ion gradients, resulting in membrane depolarization and uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation. This loss of ATP synthesis eventually results in cellular metabolic failure and necrotic cell death. Drugs, e.g., cyclosporin A, can inhibit the permeability transition through their interaction with the mitochondria-specific protein, cyclophilin D, and demonstrate neuroprotection in several animal models. These characteristics of the MPT were developed almost exclusively from experiments performed with young, mature rodents whereas the neuropathologies associated with the MPT are most prevalent in the elderly population. Some evidence indicates that the sensitivity of mitochondria to Ca2+-induced PTP opening is greater in the aged compared to the young mature brain; however, the basis for this difference is unknown. Based on knowledge of factors that regulate the MPT and on other comparisons between cells and mitochondria from young and old animals, several features may be important. These aging-related features include impaired neuronal Ca2+ homeostasis, increased oxidative stress, increased cyclophilin D protein levels, oxidative modification of the adenine nucleotide translocase and of cardiolipin, and changes in the levels of anti-death mitochondrial proteins, e.g., Bcl-2. The influence of aging on both the contribution of the MPT to neuropathology and the neuroprotective efficacy of MPT inhibitors is a substantial knowledge gap that requires extensive research at the subcellular, cellular, and animal model levels.     

Oxidative stress is responsible for mitochondrial permeability transition induction by salicylate in liver mitochondria

The interaction of salicylate with the respiratory chain of liver mitochondria generates hydrogen peroxide and, most probably, other reactive oxygen species, which in turn oxidize thiol groups and glutathione. This oxidative stress, confirmed by the prevention of action by antioxidant agents, leads to the induction of the mitochondrial permeability transition in the presence of Ca2+. This phenomenon induces further increase of oxidative damage resulting in impairment of oxidative phosphorylation and beta-oxidation, cardinal features of Reye's syndrome in the liver. Mitochondrial permeability transition induction also induces the release of cytochrome c and apoptotic inducing factor from mitochondria, suggesting that salicylate also behaves as a pro-apoptotic agent. The reactive group of salicylate for inducing oxidative stress is the hydroxyl group which, by interacting with a Fe-S cluster of mitochondrial Complex I, the so-called N-2(Fe-S) center, produces reactive oxygen species.     

异氟烷预处理对大鼠肝缺血再灌注时脑线粒体钙及线粒体转运通道的影响

目的：通过观察在体大鼠肝部分缺血再灌注损伤后脑线粒体游离钙、线粒体转运通道（ mitochondrial permeability transition pore ,MPTP）及外周血中S-100β蛋白含量的变化,明确异氟烷预处理对大鼠肝部分缺血再灌注时脑损伤是否具有保护作用及可能的机制。方法 SD大鼠75只随机分成假手术组（ S组）;缺血再灌注组（ I/R组）：肝缺血60 min,再灌注120 min;异氟烷预处理组（ ISO组）：肝I/R前60 min ISO预处理30 min,后用空气洗脱30 min：CsA＋ISO组,CsA50 mg/kg静脉内注射,30 min后同ISO组;CsA组,I/R前30 min CsA50 mg/kg静脉内注射。再灌注24 h迅速断头取前脑,分离线粒体进行线粒体游离钙、MPTP含量检测,各组分别于缺血前及再灌注120 min后抽取静脉血采用双抗体夹心-ELAISA 法测定 S-100β蛋白含量。结果 I/R组（287.32±26.17）线粒体游离Ca2＋浓度明显增加,高于S组（198.54±21.02）和ISO组（209.74±29.49）（P ＜0.05）;CsA＋ISO（267.31±37.52）明显高于ISO组（ P ＜0.05）;CsA（288.63±23.15）组与I/R组间比较差异无显著意义（ P ＜0.05）;I/R组（1.73±0.24）的ΔS与S组（2.36±0.35）和ISO 组（2.11±0.32）相比明显减少（P ＜0.05）,既MPTP大量开放,而后两组的差异无统计学意义（P ＜0.05）;I/R组与CsA＋ISO组（1.72±0.34）和CsA组（1.77±0.35）△S之间差异无统计学意义（P ＜0.05）;CsA＋ISO组的ΔS值与ISO组相比明显降低（P ＜0.05）。外周血液S-100β蛋白I/R组明显高于S组和ISO组（P ＜0.05）;CsA＋ISO组与ISO组比较显著升高（P ＜0.05）,I/R组,CsA＋ISO组和CsA组与缺血前比较明显升高（ P ＜0.05）,缺血前S-100β蛋白含量五组无显著性差异（ P ＜0.05）。结论大鼠肝部分缺血再灌注后对脑组织造成了一定程度损伤,而异氟烷预处理对此损伤具有一定保护作用;其作用的机制可能与异氟烷抑制MPTP开放,降低线粒体游离Ca2＋浓度,防止了线粒体Ca2＋超载有关。     

Dysfunction of rat liver mitochondria by selenite: induction of mitochondrial permeability transition through thiol-oxidation

Selenium is an essential trace element in mammals and is thought to play a chemopreventive role in human cancer, possibly by inducing tumor cell apoptosis. Mitochondria play a pivotal role in the induction of apoptosis in many cell types. The effects of selenite on mitochondrial function were therefore investigated. Selenite induced the oxidation and cross-linking of protein thiol groups, mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT), a decrease in the mitochondrial membrane potential, and the release of cytochrome c in mitochondria isolated from rat liver. Induction of the MPT by selenite was prevented by cyclosporin A, EGTA, or N-ethylmaleimide. These results thus indicate that selenite induces the MPT as a result of direct modification of protein thiol groups, resulting in the release of cytochrome c and a loss of mitochondrial membrane potential.     

Cyclosporin A is a potent inhibitor of the inner membrane permeability transition in liver mitochondria

The immunosuppressive peptide cyclosporin A is a powerful inhibitor of the Ca2+-dependent permeability transition in rat liver mitochondria. When swelling is used to monitor the transition, the inhibitor is effective regardless of whether N-ethylmaleimide, Hg2+, WY-14643, t-butyl hydroperoxide, oxalacetate, rhein, phosphate, phosphoenolpyruvate, or ruthenium red plus uncoupler is used as the inducing agent. Twenty-five to fifty pmol/mg protein of cyclosporin A reduces the swelling response by 50% with complete inhibition obtained at about 150 pmol/mg protein. The compound, which does not inhibit Ca2+ uptake or mitochondrial phospholipase A2, is effective when added before or after the transition promoting agent. These findings, together with the shape of the inhibition dose-response curve, suggest that cyclosporin A essentially titrates a mitochondrial component which is present at 80-90 pmol/mg protein. It is proposed that this component is a solute unselective, regulated pore or a factor involved in controlling such a structure.     

Influence of Tl+ on mitochondrial permeability transition pore in Ca2+-loaded rat liver mitochondria

The Tl⁺-induced opening of the MPTP in Ca²⁺-loaded rat liver mitochondria energized by respiration on the substrates succinate or glutamate plus malate was recorded as increased swelling and dissipation of mitochondrial membrane potential as well as decreased state 4, or state 3, or 2,4-dinitrophenol-stimulated respiration. These effects of Tl⁺ increased in nitrate media containing monovalent cations in the order of Li⁺ < NH₄⁺ ≤ Na⁺ < K⁺. They were potentiated by inorganic phosphate and diminished by the MPTP inhibitors (ADP, CsA, Mg²⁺, Li⁺, rotenone, EGTA, and ruthenium red) both individually and more potently in their combinations. Maximal swelling of both non-energized and energized Ca²⁺-loaded mitochondria in rotenone-free media is an indication of Ca²⁺ uptake driven by respiration on mitochondrial endogenous substrates. It is suggested that Tl⁺ (distinct from Cd²⁺, Hg²⁺, and other heavy metals and regardless of the used respiratory substrates) can stimulate opening of the MPTP only in the presence of Ca²⁺. We discuss the possible participation of Ca²⁺-binding sites, located near the respiratory complex I and the adenine nucleotide translocase, in inducing opening of the MPTP.     

L-Carnitine suppresses oleic acid-induced membrane permeability transition of mitochondria

Membrane permeability transition (MPT) of mitochondria has an important role in apoptosis of various cells. The classic type of MPT is characterized by increased Ca(2+) transport, membrane depolarization, swelling, and sensitivity to cyclosporin A. In this study, we investigated whether L-carnitine suppresses oleic acid-induced MPT using isolated mitochondria from rat liver. Oleic acid-induced MPT in isolated mitochondria, inhibited endogenous respiration, caused membrane depolarization, and increased large amplitude swelling, and cytochrome c (Cyt. c) release from mitochondria. L-Carnitine was indispensable to beta-oxidation of oleic acid in the mitochondria, and this reaction required ATP and coenzyme A (CoA). In the presence of ATP and CoA, L-carnitine stimulated oleic acid oxidation and suppressed the oleic acid-induced depolarization, swelling, and Cyt. c release. L-Carnitine also contributed to maintaining mitochondrial function, which was decreased by the generation of free fatty acids with the passage of time after isolation. These results suggest that L-carnitine acts to maintain mitochondrial function and suppresses oleic acid-mediated MPT through acceleration of beta-oxidation.     

分光光度法检测心肌线粒体渗透性转换

目的：线粒体渗透性转换(mitochondria permeability transition,MPT）是反映线粒体膜完整和功能的重要指标。它的测定是根据MPT增大时线粒体膜内外渗透失衡,导致吸光度明显减少的原理。我们参国外文献资源,结合本实验室的条件,采用UV－240分光光度计,建立了分光光度法测定心肌线粒体渗透性转换。方法：以其在540nm波长下吸光度减少的幅度及达到平衡所用的时间△A／min值反映MPT的变化。结果和结论：通过观察测定体系中不同pH值,不同线粒体蛋白量,以及不同温度条件下对线粒体PT的影响,认为pH7.4、0.5mg pro/ml线粒体以及25℃为最佳条件。     

Trehalose loading through the mitochondrial permeability transition pore enhances desiccation tolerance in rat liver mitochondria

Trehalose has extensively been used to improve the desiccation tolerance of mammalian cells. To test whether trehalose improves desiccation tolerance of mammalian mitochondria, we introduced trehalose into the matrix of isolated rat liver mitochondria by reversibly permeabilizing the inner membrane using the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP). Measurement of the trehalose concentration inside mitochondria using high performance liquid chromatography showed that the sugar permeated rapidly into the matrix upon opening the MPTP. The concentration of intra-matrix trehalose reached 0.29 mmol/mg protein (∼190 mM) in 5 min. Mitochondria, with and without trehalose loaded into the matrix, were desiccated in a buffer containing 0.25 M trehalose by diffusive drying. After re-hydration, the inner membrane integrity was assessed by measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential with the fluorescent probe JC-1. The results showed that following drying to similar water contents, the mitochondria loaded with trehalose had significantly higher inner membrane integrity than those without trehalose loading. These findings suggest the presence of trehalose in the mitochondrial matrix affords improved desiccation tolerance to the isolated mitochondria.     

Trehalose loading through the mitochondrial permeability transition pore enhances desiccation tolerance in rat liver mitochondria

Trehalose has extensively been used to improve the desiccation tolerance of mammalian cells. To test whether trehalose improves desiccation tolerance of mammalian mitochondria, we introduced trehalose into the matrix of isolated rat liver mitochondria by reversibly permeabilizing the inner membrane using the mitochondrial permeability transition pore (MPTP). Measurement of the trehalose concentration inside mitochondria using high performance liquid chromatography showed that the sugar permeated rapidly into the matrix upon opening the MPTP. The concentration of intra-matrix trehalose reached 0.29 mmol/mg protein (approximately 190 mM) in 5 min. Mitochondria, with and without trehalose loaded into the matrix, were desiccated in a buffer containing 0.25 M trehalose by diffusive drying. After re-hydration, the inner membrane integrity was assessed by measurement of mitochondrial membrane potential with the fluorescent probe JC-1. The results showed that following drying to similar water contents, the mitochondria loaded with trehalose had significantly higher inner membrane integrity than those without trehalose loading. These findings suggest the presence of trehalose in the mitochondrial matrix affords improved desiccation tolerance to the isolated mitochondria.