谷氨酸棒杆菌L-天冬氨酸α-脱羧酶在大肠杆菌中的表达及酶转化生产β-丙氨酸

【目的】克隆谷氨酸棒杆菌来源L-天冬氨酸α-脱羧酶基因, 实现其在大肠杆菌中的异源表达, 并进行酶转化L-天冬氨酸合成β-丙氨酸的研究。【方法】PCR扩增谷氨酸棒杆菌L-天冬氨酸α-脱羧酶基因pand, 构建表达载体pET24a(+)-Pand, 转化宿主菌大肠杆菌BL21(DE3), 对重组菌进行诱导表达, 表达产物经DEAE离子交换层析和G-75 分子筛层析纯化后进行酶学性质研究, 然后进行酶转化实验, 说明底物和产物对酶转化的影响。【结果】重组菌SDS-PAGE分析表明Pand表达量可达菌体总蛋白的50%以上, AccQ·Tag法检测酶活达到94.16 U/mL。该重组酶最适反应温度为55 °C, 在低于37 °C时保持较好的稳定性, 最适pH为6.0, 在pH 4.0?7.0范围内有较好的稳定性。酶转化实验说明: 底物L-天冬氨酸和产物β-丙氨酸对转化反应均有抑制作用; 实验建立了较优的酶转化反应方式, 在加酶量为每克天冬氨酸3 000 U时, 以分批加入固体底物L-天冬氨酸的形式, 使100 g/L底物转化率达到97.8%。【结论】重组L-天冬氨酸α-脱羧酶在大肠杆菌中获得高效表达, 研究了酶转化生产β-丙氨酸的影响因素, 为其工业应用奠定了基础。     

苏云金芽孢杆菌重组L-异亮氨酸羟化酶的酶学性质及其在4-羟基异亮氨酸合成中的应用

【目的】克隆并表达来源于苏云金芽孢杆菌(Bacillus thuringiensis)TCCC 11826的L-异亮氨酸羟化酶(L-isoleucine-4-hydroxylase,IDO),测定重组IDO酶学特性并构建用于4-羟基异亮氨酸(4-Hydroxyisoleucine,4-HIL)微生物转化的重组菌株,以考察该酶在4-HIL合成中的潜在应用价值。【方法】以B.thuringiensis TCCC 11826基因组为模板PCR扩增ido基因并构建该基因过表达菌株BL-IDO;采用Ni-NTA亲和层析法分离纯化重组IDO后检测其酶学特性;构建重组株菌W3110-IDO进行4-HIL的微生物转化。【结果】克隆B.thuringiensis TCCC 11826的ido基因,测序结果显示该基因含723个核苷酸,编码240个氨基酸,与已报道的B.thuringiensis 2-e-2的ido基因相似度分别为97.47%和97.91%。此IDO含有His1-X-Asp/Glu-Xn-His2基序,属于Fe2+和α-酮戊二酸依赖型羟化酶家族;酶学实验表明该酶能够特异性地催化L-异亮氨酸生成(2S,3R,4S)-4-HIL,其Km和Vm ax分别为0.18 mmol/L和2.10μmol/min/mg,最适反应温度和pH分别为35℃和7.0,该酶于35℃条件下放置5 h后仍具有85.1%的活性;在Escherichia coli W3110中过表达重组IDO,在未经优化条件下4-HIL最高转化率达89.28%。【结论】获得IDO编码基因序列(Accession No.KC884243)并首次较为系统地研究了其酶学特性,该酶反应条件温和且具有较高的活性及稳定性,在酶法或微生物转化法合成4-HIL中有较广泛的应用价值。本研究可为4-HIL及其它氨基酸衍生物的生物制造技术奠定理论基础。     

产碱假单胞菌脂肪酶的克隆表达及酶学性质研究

【目的】克隆产碱假单胞菌的脂肪酶基因,实现其在大肠杆菌中异源表达并进行酶学性质研究。【方法】通过基因文库构建和PCR,获得脂肪酶基因,并以pET30a(+)为表达载体、E.coli BL21(DE3)为宿主菌,在大肠杆菌中进行异源表达,表达产物经HisTrapTM亲和层析柱纯化后进行酶学性质研究。【结果】从产碱假单胞菌中克隆得到一个脂肪酶基因,大小为1 575 bp(GenBank登录号为JN674069)。该酶分子量为55 kD,最适底物为p-NPO,最适反应温度和pH分别为35°C、pH 9.0。重组酶经1 mmol/L的Cu2+处理30 min可使酶活提高至156%。在最适反应条件下重组酶的比活力为275 U/mg,Km和Vmax分别为80μmol/L和290 mmol/(min.g protein)。【结论】产碱假单胞菌脂肪酶基因的克隆与表达不仅积累了脂肪酶基因的资源,并为其在手性拆分中的应用奠定基础。     

原儿茶酸的生物转化

【背景】原儿茶酸(Protocatechuic acid,PCA)是一些植物的主要活性成分,可作为许多聚合物和药物的前体物质,目前PCA的主要来源是利用化学法从植物中提取,然而该法提取率低且对环境造成一定程度的破坏。【目的】克隆对羟基苯甲酸-3-羟化酶基因ρ-HBA-3H并进行异源表达,利用该酶催化实现原儿茶酸的生物转化。【方法】以红球菌R04基因组DNA为模板,PCR扩增得到对羟基苯甲酸-3-羟化酶基因ρ-HBA-3H,构建重组基因工程菌BL21(DE3)/pET21a(+)-ρ-HBA-3H,诱导表达对羟基苯甲酸-3-羟化酶,在底物对羟基苯甲酸(ρ-Hydroxybenzoicacid,ρ-HBA)存在下进行PCA的生物转化,并对生物转化的条件进行优化。【结果】对羟基苯甲酸-3-羟化酶基因在大肠杆菌中实现了高效表达。通过生物转化PCA产量可达1.156 g/L。优化实验表明Mg2+、Triton X-100对转化效率无影响,增加反应体系的溶氧量及添加适量的吐温-80能够促进转化反应的进行。细胞连续转化基础上适量补充葡萄糖可以有效增加工程菌的转化效率,减少PCA的消耗。【结论】通过生物酶催化法实现了PCA的高效率、绿色生产,为其他重要发酵产品的工业化生产提供理论研究基础。     

地衣芽孢杆菌E7氨肽酶的异源表达及其在高效蛋白水解中的应用

【目的】将地衣芽孢杆菌(Bacilluslicheniformis)E7氨肽酶基因pepN克隆到大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli) BL21中,实现氨肽酶Ec PepN的异源表达,研究重组酶的酶学性质及其与碱性蛋白酶协同作用,高效水解大豆蛋白和酪蛋白,产生小分子活性肽和游离氨基酸。【方法】以地衣芽孢杆菌E7基因组DNA为模板,将氨肽酶基因pepN克隆到载体pET28a中,构建重组表达载体pET28-pepN,转化到大肠杆菌BL21感受态细胞中,经DNA测序验证,获得重组菌E. coli BL21/pET28-pepN。利用镍离子亲和层析柱对重组酶进行分离纯化,研究纯酶的pH和温度稳定性、半衰期和NaCl的耐受性等酶学性质。以商品化氨肽酶与碱性蛋白酶协同作用为对照,重组酶Ec PepN与碱性蛋白酶协同水解大豆蛋白和酪蛋白,测定水解产物中小分子活性肽和游离氨基酸的组成。【结果】Ec PepN在大肠杆菌BL21中可溶性表达,SDS-PAGE分析表明纯化的重组酶在52kDa左右显示单一条带。在7种测定底物中,Ec PepN的最适底物为Ala-pNA。在最适条件(pH 9.0和50°C...     

利用重组钝齿棒杆菌高效合成L-茶氨酸

【目的】构建Bacillus subtilis来源的γ-谷氨酰转肽酶蛋白(GGT)的Corynebacterium glutamicum SYPA5-5表达系统,验证该蛋白信号肽片段在宿主表达体系中的作用,并将该体系应用于高效合成茶氨酸的研究。【方法】将该ggt基因和切除信号肽的片段基因(?sp ggt)在C.glutamicum SYPA5-5中克隆表达。以C.glutamicum SYPA5-5高产L-精氨酸培养基为基础进行重组菌产酶优化。最优转化条件为:L-谷氨酰胺∶乙胺为1∶3,酶量为0.06 U/mL。采用底物流加策略高产L-茶氨酸,40 mL的转化体系包含:终浓度为0.9 U/mL的GGT,pH 10,37℃,从0 h开始每隔2 h补加20 mmol/L的L-谷氨酰胺,60 mmol/L的乙胺。【结果】C.glutamicum SYPA5-5/pXMJ19-ggt发酵上清液中GGT酶活达到(4.69±0.34)U/mL,C.glutamicum SYPA5-5/pXMJ19-?sp ggt只检测到胞内酶活(0.99±0.17)U/mL,说明利用B.subtilis来源的信号肽可以实现GGT在C.glutamicum体系中分泌表达。最适产酶培养基条件为:葡萄糖浓度为10%;IPTG最适添加时间为0 h。批次流加在12 h时达到最大茶氨酸产量104.36 mmol/L,转化率为86.9%。【讨论】本文首次实现B.subtilis来源的γ-谷氨酰转肽酶基因(ggt)在C.glutamicum SYPA5-5中分泌表达,通过分批流加底物获得目前报道的利用重组C.glutamicum合成L-茶氨酸的最高产量。     

嗜热脱氮土壤芽孢杆菌β-葡萄糖苷酶的克隆与重组表达及其酶学性质研究

【目的】克隆嗜热脱氮土壤芽孢杆菌中的β-葡萄糖苷酶基因bglB,在E.coli中异源表达,纯化并研究其酶学性质。【方法】利用PCR技术从嗜热脱氮土壤芽孢杆菌的基因组DNA中克隆得到bglB基因,将该基因克隆到表达载体pGEX-2TL上并在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中表达,对纯化后的β-葡萄糖苷酶的酶学性质及寡聚状态进行分析。【结果】重组表达的β-葡萄糖苷酶最适温度为65°C,最适pH为7.0,能在pH 5-10、60°C下稳定存在4 h,并能在较高的离子强度(880 mmol/L K+)下发挥其功能。Al3+离子对其有强烈的激活作用,Co2+有一定的抑制作用。最适反应条件下该酶比活力为0.043 IU/mg。该酶具有多种寡聚体形式,这些寡聚体均有β-葡萄糖苷酶活性。【结论】获得一个耐热耐盐的中性β-葡萄糖苷酶,为进一步研究β-葡萄糖苷酶的催化作用机理,提高其热稳定性提供一定的帮助。     

罗尼氏弧菌Vibrio shilonii BY新琼胶酶基因的克隆、序列分析及表达

【目的】从海洋来源的罗尼氏弧菌菌株BY中克隆得到一个具有琼胶酶活性的新基因,并对其进行重组表达。【方法】对实验室保藏的产琼胶酶菌株BY进行16S rRNA基因序列分析,并构建系统发育树。根据已报道的琼胶酶基因序列的同源性,设计简并引物,利用降落PCR (Touch-down PCR)及染色体步移技术扩增琼胶酶基因序列全长,对基因序列进行生物信息学分析。将目的基因插入pET22a(+)载体,转化大肠杆菌BL21(DE3),对重组酶进行表达,利用DNS法测定了重组酶的酶活,对该重组琼胶酶酶学性质进行研究。【结果】克隆得到一条新的琼胶酶基因,命名为Vibrio sp. BY (GenBank登录号：AIW39921.1),Vibrio sp. BY基因序列全长2 232 bp,编码744个氨基酸,理论分子量为85 kD,Vibrio sp. BY的氨基酸序列基因库中与已知的琼胶酶氨基酸序列Vibrio sp. EJY3的相似度为86%。发酵液琼胶酶酶活力为71.73 U/mL,证明表达的蛋白为琼胶酶。酶学性质研究表明重组琼胶酶的最适温度及pH分别为50 °C和7.0,并且具有较好的稳定性。【结论】利用染色体步移技术克隆得到一条新的琼胶酶基因,并在大肠杆菌BL21(DE3)中实现了重组表达,为琼胶酶的应用奠定了基础。     

深海沉积物微生物元基因组文库来源的新的酯酶基因的克隆、表达及酶学性质

【目的】从深海沉积物微生物元基因组文库中克隆新的酯酶基因,并进行酶学性质研究。【方法】利用含有三丁酸甘油酯的酯酶选择性筛选培养基,从深海沉积物微生物元基因组文库中筛选得到酯酶阳性Fosmid克隆。对筛选得到的fosmid FL10进行部分酶切构建亚克隆文库,筛选得到酯酶阳性亚克隆pFLS10。PCR扩增目的片段后与pET28a连接构建酯酶基因原核表达质粒,转化大肠杆菌(Escherichia coli)BL21。纯化表达产物并对其进行活性测定及酶学性质研究。【结果】序列分析显示该pFLS10亚克隆质粒含有一段924bp的ORF(Open Reading Frame),与一海洋元基因组文库中筛选出的酯酶ADA70030序列一致性为71%。该酶为一新的低温酯酶,对C4底物(对硝基苯丁酸酯)水解能力最强。该酶最适作用温度为20℃,最适作用pH为7.5,20℃时较为稳定,pH8-10的范围内有良好的pH稳定性,K+、Mg2+对该酶具有一定的激活作用,Mn2+等对其具有不同程度的抑制作用。【结论】应用元基因组技术筛选到了新的酯酶基因fls10并进行了克隆表达,该酶在低温及碱性条件下较为稳定且活力较高,对于工业化生产具有一定的应用潜力。关键词:深海沉积物;元基因组文库;低温酯酶;酶学特征     

产L—肉碱的菌种筛选及发酵条件优化

将D,L-肉碱(carnitine,β-羟基-γ-三甲胺丁酸)用浓硫酸脱水获得反-巴豆甜菜碱(trans-crotonobetaine),从本室保藏的菌株中筛选出1株能将反-巴豆甜菜碱非对称合成L-肉碱的菌株E.coliK74.利用它的休止细胞立体选择性地水合反-巴豆甜菜碱产生L-肉碱,起催化作用的酶是L-肉碱脱水酶,是一种可诱导的胞内酶,当培养基中加入反-巴豆甜菜碱并在部分厌氧条件下可诱导产生.如培养基中含有葡萄糖、硝酸盐或氧时,酶的合成受到抑制,在磷酸缓冲液中,E.coliK74休止细胞的最适反应条件是pH为7.8,温度为37～42℃.     

Molecular cloning and characterization of the cDNA encoding the rat liver gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase.

Carnitine biosynthesis from lysine and methionine involves five enzymatic reactions. gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase (BBH; EC 1.14. 11.1) is the last enzyme of this pathway. It catalyzes the reaction of hydroxylation of gamma-butyrobetaine to carnitine. The cDNA encoding this enzyme has been isolated and characterized. The cDNA contained an open reading frame of 1161 bp encoding a protein of 387 amino acids with a deduced molecular weight of 44.5 kDa. The sequence of the cDNA showed an important homology with the human cDNA recently isolated. Northern analysis showed gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase expression in the liver and in some extend in the testis and the epididymis. During this study, it also appeared that BBH mRNA expression was undetectable by Northern analysis during the perinatal period. During the development of the rat, the amount of BBH mRNA appeared after the weaning of the young rat and reached a maximal expression at the adult stage.     

Rat liver gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase catalyzed reaction: influence of potassium, substrates, and substrate analogues on hydroxylation and decarboxylation

Interaction of rat liver gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase (EC 1.14.11.1) with various ligands was studied by following the decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate, formation of L-carnitine, or both. Potassium ion stimulates rat liver gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase catalyzed L-carnitine synthesis and alpha-ketoglutarate decarboxylation by 630% and 240%, respectively, and optimizes the coupling efficiency of these two activities. Affinities for alpha-ketoglutarate and gamma-butyrobetaine are increased in the presence of potassium. gamma-Butyrobetaine hydroxylase catalyzed decarboxylation of alpha-ketoglutarate was dependent on the presence of gamma-butyrobetaine, L-carnitine, or D-carnitine in the reaction and exhibited Km(app) values of 29, 52, and 470 microM, respectively. gamma-Butyrobetaine saturation of the enzyme indicated a substrate inhibition pattern in both the assays. Omission of potassium decreased the apparent maximum velocity of decarboxylation supported by all three compounds by a similar percent. beta-Bromo-alpha-ketoglutarate supported gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylation, although less effectively than alpha-ketoglutarate. The rat liver enzyme was rapidly inactivated by 1 mM beta-bromo-alpha-ketoglutarate at pH 7.0. This inactivation reaction did not show a rate saturation with increasing concentrations of beta-bromo-alpha-ketoglutarate. None of the substrates or cofactors, including alpha-ketoglutarate, protected the enzyme against this inactivation. Unlike beta-bromo-alpha-ketoglutarate, beta-mercapto-alpha-ketoglutarate did not replace alpha-ketoglutarate as a cosubstrate. Both beta-mercapto-alpha-ketoglutarate and beta-glutathione-alpha-ketoglutarate were noncompetitive inhibitors with respect to alpha-ketoglutarate.     

Gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase: stereochemical course of the hydroxylation reaction

The stereochemical course of the aliphatic hydroxylation of gamma-butyrobetaine by calf liver and by Pseudomonas sp AK1 gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylases has been determined. With [3(RS)-3-3H]-gamma-butyrobetaine or [3(R)-3-3H]-gamma-butyrobetaine as substrate, a rapid and significant loss of tritium to the medium occurred. On the other hand, with [3(S)-3-3H]-gamma-butyrobetaine, only a negligible release of tritium to the aqueous medium was observed. Indeed, on hydroxylation of [3(S)-3-2H]-gamma-butyrobetaine by either the calf liver or bacterial hydroxylase, the isolated product L-carnitine was found to have retained all of the deuterium initially present in the 3(S) position. Since the absolute configuration of the product L-carnitine has been determined to be R, such results are only compatible with a hydroxylation reaction that proceeded with retention of configuration. With [methyl-14C,3(R)-3-3H]-gamma-butyrobetaine as substrate for the calf liver hydroxylase, the percentage of tritium retained in the [methyl-14C]-L-carnitine product was determined as a function of percent reaction. The results of these studies indicated that pro-R hydrogen atom abstraction exceeded 99.9%. Experiments using racemic [methyl-14C,3(RS)-3-3H]-gamma-butyrobetaine as substrate yielded similar results and additionally allowed us to estimate alpha-secondary tritium kinetic isotope effects of 1.10 and 1.31 for the bacterial and calf liver enzymes, respectively. These results are discussed within the context of the radical mechanism for gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase previously proposed [Blanchard, J. S., & Englard, S. (1983) Biochemistry 22, 5922], and the required topographical arrangement of enzymic oxidant and substrate is illustrated.     

Salt stress effects on the central and carnitine metabolisms of Escherichia coli

The aim was to understand how interaction of the central carbon and the secondary carnitine metabolisms is affected under salt stress and its effect on the production of L-carnitine by Escherichia coli. The biotransformation of crotonobetaine into L-carnitine by resting cells of E. coli O44 K74 was improved by salt stress, a yield of nearly twofold that for the control being obtained with 0.5 M NaCl. Crotonobetaine and the L-carnitine formed acted as an osmoprotectant during cell growth and biotransformation in the presence of NaCl. The enzyme activities involved in the biotransformation process (crotonobetaine hydration reaction and crotonobetaine reduction reaction), in the synthesis of acetyl-CoA/acetate (pyruvate dehydrogenase, acetyl-CoA synthetase [ACS] and ATP/acetate phosphotransferase) and in the distribution of metabolites for the tricarboxylic acid cycle (isocitrate dehydrogenase [ICDH]) and glyoxylate shunt (isocitrate lyase [ICL]) were followed in batch with resting cells both in the presence and absence of NaCl and in perturbation experiments performed on growing cells in a high density cell recycle membrane reactor. Further, the levels of carnitine, crotonobetaine, gamma-butyrobetaine and ATP and the NADH/NAD(+) ratio were measured in order to know how the metabolic state was modified and coenzyme pools redistributed as a result of NaCl's effect on the energy content of the cell. The results provided the first experimental evidence of the important role played by salt stress during resting and growing cell biotransformation (0.5 M NaCl increased the L-carnitine production in nearly 85%), and the need for high levels of ATP to maintain metabolite transport and biotransformation. Moreover, the main metabolic pathways and carbon flow operating during cell biotransformation was that controlled by the ICDH/ICL ratio, which decreased from 8.0 to 2.5, and the phosphotransferase/ACS ratio, which increased from 2.1 to 5.2, after a NaCl pulse fivefold the steady-state level. Resting E. coli cells were seen to be made up of heterogeneous populations consisting of several types of subpopulation (intact, depolarized, and permeabilized cells) differing in viability and metabolic activity as biotransformation run-time and the NaCl concentration increased. The results are discussed in relation with the general stress response of E. coli, which alters the NADH/NAD(+) ratio, ATP content, and central carbon enzyme activities.     

Rhodococcus erythropolis 手性醇脱氢酶的克隆表达及其性质

【目的】探讨红串红球菌中一种醇脱氢酶的性质及其对酮酯类及酮类底物的催化能力。【方法】从红串红球菌(Rhodococcus erythropolis ATCC 4277)中获取一段长度为1047 bp的醇脱氢酶(adh)基因,插入载体pET-22b(+)后,在大肠杆菌中进行重组表达。15℃的低温下用自诱导培养基诱导24 h,以苯乙酮为底物测定醇脱氢酶酶活。【结果】测得该诱导条件下重组菌体细胞破碎上清中醇脱氢酶酶活力为2.6 U/mg。经温度、pH耐受性等分析,发现该酶最适pH在6.0-6.5之间,耐受温度可以达到60℃,并且在该温度下保持5 h后,酶活也能保留80%。对于β酮酯类底物的催化反应,以对乙酰乙酸乙酯的催化能力最高。用4-氯乙酰乙酸乙酯(COBE)为底物进行全细胞水相催化反应,经手性液相色谱分析,发现在催化产物以R型4-氯-3羟基丁酸乙酯(CHBE)为主。【结论】该酶在酮酯类的底物转化方面有良好的开发潜力及应用前景。     

Characterization of the eugenol hydroxylase genes (ehyA/ehyB) from the new eugenol-degrading Pseudomonas sp. strain OPS1

During the screening for bacteria capable of converting eugenol to vanillin, strain OPS1 was isolated, which was identified as a new Pseudomonas species by 16 s rDNA sequence analysis. When this bacterium was grown on eugenol, the intermediates, coniferyl alcohol, ferulic acid, vanillic acid, and protocatechuic acid, were identified in the culture supernatant. The genes encoding the eugenol hydroxylase (ehyA, ehyB), which catalyzes the first step of this biotransformation, were identified in a genomic library of Pseudomonas sp. strain OPS1 by complementation of the eugenol-negative mutant SK6165 of Pseudomonas sp. strain HR199. EhyA and EhyB exhibited 57% and 85% amino acid identity to the eugenol hydroxylase subunits of Pseudomonas sp. strain HR199 and up to 34% and 54% identity to the corresponding subunits of p-cresol methylhydroxylase from P. putida. Moreover, the amino-terminal sequences of the alpha- and beta-subunits reported recently for an eugenol dehydrogenase of P fluorescens E118 corresponded well with the appropriate regions of EhyA and EhyB. Downstream of ehyB, an open reading frame was identified, whose deduced amino acid sequence exhibited up to 71% identity to azurins, representing most probably the gene (azu) of the physiological electron acceptor of the eugenol hydroxylase. The eugenol hydroxylase genes were amplified by PCR, cloned, and functionally expressed in Escherichia coli.     

Multiple forms of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase (EC 1.14.11.1).

gamma-Butyrobetaine hydroxylase [4-trimethylaminobutyrate, 2-oxoglutarate:oxygen oxidoreductase (3-hydroxylating), EC 1.14.11.1] from human kidney was resolved into three forms by chromatofocusing. After further chromatography on an anion-exchanger, each form appeared as a single band on electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gel containing sodium dodecyl sulphate. The isoelectric points of isoenzymes 1, 2 and 3 were 5.6, 5.7 and 5.8 respectively, as estimated by isoelectric focusing. Their specific activities were 17-29 mu kat/g of protein. The concentrations of the three isoenzymes were about equal, possibly slightly lower for isoenzyme 1. The requirement for Fe2+ and the Km values for gamma-butyrobetaine and 2-oxoglutarate were about the same for the different enzyme forms. L- and D-Carnitine caused decarboxylation of 2-oxoglutarate to the same extent (8 and 29%) with the three forms. The enzyme forms had the same mass, 64 kDa, as determined by gel filtration in nondenaturing media. The same subunit mass, 42 kDa, was obtained for the multiple forms by electrophoresis in polyacrylamide gels containing sodium dodecyl sulphate. Isoenzyme 2 was resolved into two protein bands by isoelectric focusing in polyacrylamide gels containing urea. Isoenzyme 1 contained only one of these bands and isoenzyme 3 the other. The three enzyme forms of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase thus appear to be dimeric combinations of two subunits differing in charge but not in size. gamma-Butyrobetaine hydroxylase from crude extracts of human, rat and calf liver was also separated into multiple forms by a chromatofocusing technique. The isoenzyme pattern was the same in human liver and kidney. The technique used to resolve the mammalian enzymes gave no evidence for the presence of multiple forms of the bacterial enzyme from Pseudomonas sp. AK 1.     

OCTN3: A Na+-independent L-carnitine transporter in enterocytes basolateral membrane

L-carnitine transport has been measured in enterocytes and basolateral membrane vesicles (BLMV) isolated from chicken intestinal epithelia. In the nominally Na+-free conditions chicken enterocytes take up L-carnitine until the cell to medium L-carnitine ratio is 1. This uptake was inhibited by L-carnitine, D-carnitine, gamma-butyrobetaine, acetylcarnitine, tetraethylammonium (TEA), and betaine. L-3H-carnitine uptake into BLMV showed no overshoot, and it was (i) Na+-independent, (ii) trans-stimulated by intravesicular L-carnitine, and (iii) cis-inhibited by TEA and cold L-carnitine. L-3H-carnitine efflux from L-3H-carnitine preloaded enterocytes was also Na+-independent, and trans-stimulated by L-carnitine, D-carnitine, gamma-butyrobetaine, acetylcarnitine, TEA, and betaine. Both, uptake and efflux of L-carnitine were inhibited by verapamil and unaffected by either extracellular pH or palmitoyl-L-carnitine. RT-PCR with specific primers for the mouse OCTN3 transporter revealed the existence of OCTN3 mRNA in mouse intestine, which was confirmed by in situ hybridization studies. Immunohystochemical analysis showed that OCTN3 protein was mainly associated with the basolateral membrane of rat and chicken enterocytes, whereas OCTN2 was detected at the apical membrane. In conclusion, the results demonstrate for the first time that (i) mammalian small intestine expresses OCTN3 mRNA along the villus and (ii) that OCTN3 protein is located in the basolateral membrane. They also suggest that OCTN3 could mediate the passive, Na+ and pH-independent L-carnitine transport activity measured in the three experimental conditions.     

gamma-Butyrobetaine hydroxylase and the protective role of glutathione peroxidase

The selenoenzyme glutathione peroxidase in the presence of GSH effectively replaced catalase in the in vitro assay for gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase. Quantitatively, glutathione peroxidase was an order of magnitude more efficient than catalase, with maximal activity at less than 0.1 microM glutathione peroxidase in a standard reaction. Glutathione peroxidase prevented the loss of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase during preliminary incubation with ferrous ions but without other substrates as well as in the course of the reaction. Regardless of whether glutathione peroxidase or catalase was present in the assay, the ascorbate concentrations needed to achieve half-maximal rates were similar (about 1 mM). Phosphate stimulated the rate of L-carnitine synthesis. Ferrous ion saturation indicated a pronounced effect of phosphate on the maximal velocity of the enzyme-catalyzed reaction, but its mechanism of action remains to be elucidated. Based on the subcellular distribution of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase, catalase, and glutathione peroxidase, the role of glutathione peroxidase assumes importance. However, initial studies indicated that the assayable activity of liver gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase and L-carnitine concentrations in liver, blood plasma, and muscle were not significantly altered in selenium-deficient rats.     

Inducible γ-Butyrobetaine-Degrading Enzymes in Pseudomonas Species AK 1

Activities of gamma-butyrobetaine hydroxylase and carnitine dehydrogenase were low in cells of Pseudomonas sp. AK 1 grown in the absence of their respective substrates.