Chemical composition and antimicrobial activity of volatiles from Degenia velebitica, a European stenoendemic plant of the Brassicaceae family

Free and glucosidic bound leaf volatiles of Degenia velebitica were isolated and fractionated simultaneously into H₂O‐soluble, H₂O‐insoluble, and highly volatile compounds by hydrodistillation–adsorption (HDA) and analyzed by GC/MS. Among the 24 constituents identified, the main compounds obtained by the HDA method were S‐ and/or N‐atom containing compounds, i.e., 6‐(methylsulfanyl)hexanenitrile ( 10 ; 26.78%), dimethyl trisulfide ( 6 ; 26.35%), 3,4,5‐trimethylpyrazole ( 17 ; 13.33%), hex‐5‐enenitrile ( 2 ; 10.11%), dimethyl tetrasulfide ( 8 ; 4.93%), and pent‐4‐enyl isothiocyanate ( 7 ; 4.45%). In addition, O‐glycosidically bound volatiles and free volatiles were isolated by solvent extraction. Sixteen volatile O‐aglycones and twelve free volatile components were identified. The main O‐aglycones were eugenol ( 19 ; 24.15%), 2‐methoxy‐4‐vinylphenol ( 11 ; 11.50%), and benzyl alcohol ( 20 ; 9.49%), and the main free volatiles were (9Z,12Z)‐octa‐9,12‐dienic acid (38.35%), hexadecanoic acid (22.64%), and phytol (5.80%). The H₂O‐soluble volatile fraction obtained by HDA, containing mostly glucosinolate degradation products and 3,4,5‐trimethylpyrazole ( 17 ), was evaluated for antimicrobial activity by determining inhibition zones with the diffusion method as well as minimal inhibitory concentrations (MIC) and minimal microbicidal concentrations (MMC) with the micro‐dilution method. The fraction expressed activity against the tested Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria as well as against yeast, with MIC values equal to or lower than 16.7 μg/ml.     

Phytochemical analysis and antimicrobial activity of Cardaria draba (L.) Desv. volatiles

Two different volatile isolates from the aerial parts of Cardaria draba (L.) Desv., obtained either by hydrodistillation (Extract I) or by CH₂Cl₂ extraction subsequent to hydrolysis by exogenous myrosinase (Extract II), were characterized by GC‐FID and GC/MS analyses. The main volatiles obtained by hydrodistillation, i.e., 4‐(methylsulfanyl)butyl isothiocyanate ( 1 ; 28.0%) and 5‐(methylsulfanyl)pentanenitrile ( 2 ; 13.8%), originated from the degradation of glucoerucin. In Extract I, also volatiles without sulfur and/or nitrogen were identified. These were mostly hexadecanoic acid (10.8%), phytol (10.2%), dibutyl phthalate (4.5%), and some other compounds in smaller percentages. Extract II contained mostly glucosinolate degradation products. They originated from glucoraphanin, viz., 4‐(methylsulfinyl)butyl isothiocyanate ( 3 ; 69.2%) and 5‐(methylsulfinyl)pentanenitrile ( 4 ; 4.5%), glucosinalbin, viz., 2‐(4‐hydroxyphenyl)acetonitrile ( 5 ; 7.2%), and glucoerysolin, viz., 4‐(methylsulfonyl)butyl isothiocyanate ( 6 ; 5.0%). Moreover, the volatile samples were evaluated for their antimicrobial activity using the disc‐diffusion method and determining minimum inhibitory concentrations (MIC). All volatile isolates expressed a wide range of growth inhibition activity against both Gram‐positive and Gram‐negative bacteria and fungi. The MIC values varied between 4 and 128 μg/ml.     

Bacterial mutagenicity of some methyl 2-cyanoacrylates and methyl 2-cyano-3-phenylacrylates

The mutagenic potential of three alkyl 2-cyanoacrylate adhesives, three commercial alkyl 2-cyanoacrylate adhesives and three methyl 2-cyano-3-phenylacrylates, was assessed using the Salmonella/microsome mutagenicity assay. Compounds were tested with and without Aroclor 1254-induced rat-liver homogenate (S9 mix). The methyl 2-cyanoacrylate adhesives were mutagenic in the standard plate test with S. typhimurium strain TA100 with and without S9 activation. Methyl 2-cyano-3-(2-bromophenyl)acrylate revealed a direct mutagenic action to S. typhimurium strain TA1535. The compounds most toxic towards the bacterium S. typhimurium, were the methyl 2-cyanoacrylate adhesives (greater than 500 micrograms/plate). All alkyl 2-cyanoacrylate adhesives were tested in a modified spot test for volatile compounds with tester strain TA100. Mutagenic and toxic effects were observed with the three methyl 2-cyanoacrylate adhesives. It can be concluded from the results that the bacterial toxicity and mutagenicity of methyl 2-cyanoacrylate adhesives may be due to the methyl 2-cyanoacrylate monomer.     

Production of volatile organic compounds by the yeast fungus Dipodascus aggregatus

Summary The yeast fungus Dipodascus aggregatus was grown aerobically in a synthetic nutrient solution and the volatile compounds produced were concentrated. Identification of the volatiles was performed by combined gas chromatographymass spectrometry or by one of these methods. The compounds identified were 11 esters, 9 alcohols, 5 acids and 3 carbonyls.The time course production of volatile neutral compounds was followed. During the phase of no apparent growth only a few substances were formed (mostly alcohols). The rapid phase of growth was characterized by an intense synthesis of many compounds in relatively high concentrations and later a sudden decrease in the number and amounts of substances. A slow successive, decline in the number and amounts of volatile components was observed during the phase of no net growth.The volatiles emitted by the fungus were concentrated, when most of the compounds were most abundant and the relative amounts of the major volatile neutral compounds were determined. The main components were ethyl acetate, ethyl propionate and ethanol.     

外用不同浓度茉莉酸甲酯诱导的茶树挥发物的种类和时序变化

【目的】明确MeJA对茶树挥发物的诱导作用。【方法】采用顶空活体取样法对不同浓度MeJA处理后的茶苗挥发物进行抽提,并利用GC-MS对挥发物进行鉴定。【结果】不同剂量MeJA显著地影响茶树挥发物的种类组成和释放量,50μL MeJA处理可显著诱导茶树释放香叶烯、萜品油烯、罗勒烯等10种单萜类化合物,法呢烯、橙花叔醇和红没药烯等7种倍半萜类化合物,苯甲醇、苯乙腈和吲哚等5种氨基酸衍生物,以及3种未知化合物;而100μL MeJA处理仅能诱导茶树释放7种化合物。不同挥发物对MeJA处理的响应时间不同,但其释放量都具有昼高夜低的趋势。并且,释放量的大小明显受到光照强度的影响。【结论】外用MeJA喷雾处理可诱导茶树挥发物的产生和释放。     

藏药镰形棘豆挥发性成分研究(英文)

本文通过水蒸气蒸馏、超临界CO2萃取和顶空萃取三种方法并结合GC和GC/MS技术分析藏药镰形棘豆(Oxytropis falcate Bunge)中的挥发性成分,共鉴定出58个化合物,分别占71.0%,85.6%和84.5%。烷烃类、黄酮类和醛类化合物为主要挥发性成分。3种方法得到的挥发性成分在保留时间值上具有一定的连续性,能更完全地阐述清楚藏药镰形棘豆的挥发性成分,为进一步开发利用这种药用植物提供科学依据。     

Functional evolution of biosynthetic enzymes that produce plant volatiles*

Plants synthesize volatile compounds to attract pollinators. The volatiles emitted by flowers are often complex mixtures of organic compounds; pollinators are capable of distinctly recognizing different volatile compounds. Plants also produce volatile compounds to protect themselves against herbivores and pathogens. Some of the volatile compounds produced in floral and vegetative tissues are toxic to insects and microbes. To adapt changes in the environment, plants have evolved the ability to synthesize a unique set of volatiles. Intensive studies have identified and characterized the enzymes responsible for the formation of plant volatiles. In particular, many biosynthetic genes have been isolated and their enzymatic functions have been proposed. This review describes how plants have evolved the biosynthetic pathways leading to the formation of green leaf volatiles and phenylpropene volatiles.     

The responses of the cabbage seed weevil Ceutorhynchus assimilis to volatile compounds from oilseed rape in a linear track olfactometer

The cabbage seed weevil, Ceutorhynchus assimilis Payk. [syn. Ceutorhynchus obstrictus (Marsham)] (Coleoptera: Curculionidae), a crucifer-feeding insect, is a pest of oilseed rape (Brassica napus L.). It is known to be attracted by isothiocyanates, crucifer-specific volatiles that are metabolites of the glucosinolates. The responses of this insect to other electrophysiologically-active volatiles from rape were tested in a linear track olfactometer. Attraction was demonstrated to nitriles (phenylacetonitrile, 4-pentenenitrile and 5-hexenenitrile), which are also glucosinolate metabolites, and to volatiles emitted by a wider spectrum of plant families ((Z)-3-hexen-1-ol and methyl salicylate). Combination of an isothiocyanate mixture with phenylacetonitrile increased attraction, but there was no such increase when the isothiocyanate mixture was combined with methyl salicylate. A mixture of 23 volatiles, emulating an attractive air-entrainment extract of oilseed rape, was not significantly attractive, although a high proportion of weevils (60%) turned towards it. The potential of these volatiles for inclusion into an isothiocyanate-based monitoring system is discussed.     

Identification of odoriferous compounds from adults of a swallowtail butterfly, Papilio machaon (Lepidoptera: Papilionidae)

Adults, particularly males, of a papilionid butterfly, Papilio machaon hippocrates, emit a fairly strong scent perceivable by humans. We have identified a variety of volatile compounds (hydrocarbons, alcohols, aldehydes, ketones, esters, and so on) from the wings and bodies of both sexes of the butterfly. Male wings secreted n-dodecane, linalool and geranylacetone as major components together with small amounts of camphene, limonene, p-cymene, 2-phenylethanol, n-hexanal, n-decanal, isoamyl acetate, p-allylanisole, 2-pyrrolidone and other characteristic volatiles. The overall profile of volatile compounds detected from male body was quite different from that of the wings. Male body was devoid of camphene, 2-phenylethanol, n-hexanal but instead contained limonene, acetoin, a sesquiterpene hydrocarbon (C15H24, methyl n-octanoate, (E,E)-hepta-2,4-dienal, and another isomer of heptadienal as principal components, of which the last four compounds were specific to the body. All these substances seem to concurrently characterize the male odor. The chemical patterns of compounds found from female wings and body were essentially the same in quality as those of male wings and body, respectively, although their quantities in females were generally smaller than in males. Females, however, had a larger amount of acetamide than males. The chemical compositions of volatiles from the fore and hind wings of males were not greatly different from each other, and every component was considered to be present on all parts of the wings. This suggests that the scent-producing organs or scent-emitting pores are widely distributed on the whole wings. EAG responses of both sexes to 12 selected compounds identified from the butterfly were not strong at a dose of 1 microg, while both sexes showed relatively stronger responses to n-nonanal, methyl n-octanoate, D-limonene and linalool at a higher dose (10 microg). Although sexual difference in EAG response was not prominent, females appeared a little more sensitive, and n-nonanal and acetoin evoked significantly higher responses from females at 1 microg.     

Volatiles in Distillates of Fresh Radish of Japanese and Kenyan Origin

The steam-volatile constituents of fresh radish of Japanese and Kenyan origin have been studied by GC-MS technique. The over-all pattern of compounds in the two materials was similar. Ten mustard oils, of which pentyl, hexyl, and 4-methylpentyl isothiocyanate have not previously been reported as products of natural derivation, two related nitriles, dimethyl disulfide, methyl methanethiolsulfinate and 1-methylthio-3-pentanone, a novel sulfide-ketone, together constitute the major volatile sulfur products in the two radish materials. A few non-sulfur volatiles have also been identified. The diversity in chemical structure of the sulfur constituents becomes less surprising when regarded in terms of their biogenetic origin.     

Ecological role of volatiles produced by Epichlo?: differences in antifungal toxicity.

Species of Epichlo? (Ascomycota, Clavicipitaceae) are endophytic symbionts of pooid grasses. Sexual reproduction of the fungus depends on gamete-transferring Botanophila flies, which in earlier studies were shown to be specifically attracted by the fungal volatiles chokol K and methyl (Z)-3-methyldodec-2-enoate. As several Epichlo? volatiles are known to have antimicrobial properties, it was hypothesised that the original function of insect-attracting volatiles is microbial deterrence. However, the origin of volatile compounds and their toxicity within an ecological context has not yet been clarified. We examined the inhibitory effect of chokol K and methyl (Z)-3-methyldodec-2-enoate on mycoparasites, plant pathogenic fungi and on Epichlo? itself at ecologically relevant concentrations, and assessed volatile production in pure cultures of Epichlo? on complex and defined media supplemented with inorganic sources of carbon and nitrogen. Chokol K reduced the spore germination of all tested fungi, whereas methyl (Z)-3-methyldodec-2-enoate had no inhibitory effect. Moreover, only chokol K was produced in culture, confirming its fungal origin. Our findings are consistent with the proposed scenario that fungal volatile substances have followed an evolutionary pathway from defence to attraction.     

Plant volatiles as method of communication

Plants emit volatile compounds that can act as a communication method to insects, neighboring plants and pathogens. Plants respond to leaf and root damage by herbivores and pathogens by emitting these compounds. The volatile compounds can deter the herbivores or pathogens directly or indirectly by attracting their natural enemies to kill them. The simultaneous damage of plants by herbivores and pathogens can influence plant defense. The induced plant volatiles can also make neighboring plants ready for defense or induce defense in parts distant from the damaged area of the same plant. Belowground root herbivory can alter the defense response to aboveground leaf herbivory. In addition, most plants normally emit volatile compounds from their flowers that directly attract foraging mutualistic insects for nectar, which in turn perform the very important function of pollination for subsequent reproduction. The volatile compounds emitted from the floral and vegetative parts of plants belong to three main classes of compounds: terpenoids, phenylpropanoids/benzenoids, and C6-aldehydes (green-leaf volatiles). The volatile phytohormones methyl salicylate and methyl jasmonate serve as important signaling molecules for communication purposes, and interact with each other to optimize the plant defense response. Here we discuss and integrate the current knowledge on all types of communication between plants and insects, neighboring plants and pathogens that are mediated through plant volatiles.     

外源茉莉酸和茉莉酸甲酯诱导植物抗虫作用及其机理

综述了茉莉酸(jasmonic acid, JA)和茉莉酸甲酯(methyl jasmo nate, MJA)的分子结构和应用其诱导的植物抗虫作用及其机制。植物受外源茉莉酸或茉莉酸甲酯刺激后,一条反应途径是由硬脂酸途径激活防御基因,另一条途径是直接激活防御基因。防御基因激活后导致代谢途径重新配置,并可能诱导植物产生下列4种效应：（1）直接防御,即植物产生对害虫有毒的物质、抗营养和抗消化的酶类,或具驱避性和妨碍行为作用的化合物;（2）间接防御,即产生吸引天敌的挥发物;（3）不防御,即无防御反应;（4）负防御,即产生吸引害虫的挥发物。     

A combination of physiological and chemometrics analyses reveals the main associations between quality and ripening traits and volatiles in two loquat cultivars

A combined analysis of physiological traits, volatile composition and sensory evaluation of aromatic quality was conducted on the ‘Algerie’ and ‘Golden Nuggett’ cultivars at six maturity stages, covering colour breaking to complete ripening. The main difference between cultivars during ripening was aromatic character; organoleptic differences between cultivars were assessed by a taste panel and could be explained by the volatile profile at harvest, and more specifically by those volatiles showing a rapid increase as fruits fully ripened. Among the 121 volatile compounds identified in loquat fruits, 2-methyl butanoic acid was the only cultivar-specific VOC, detected only in ‘Algerie’, while the levels of other common VOCs also contributed to differentiation between cultivars. A correlation analysis ran between volatile compounds levels and loquat aroma and flavour intensity revealed that 1,2-dimethoxy-4-(2-methoxyethenyl)benzene, elemicin, (Z)-2-hexen-1-ol, methyl 2-methylbutanoate, methyl 3,4,5-trimethoxybenzoate, cis-geranylacetone, (E)-methyl cinnamate, (E)-2-decenal, cis-edulan and 1-hydroxycyclohexyl phenyl ketone were volatiles which could importantly contribute to loquat’s aromatic character, some of which are reported here for the first time as key volatiles in aromatic quality. The correlations among the physiological parameters, the volatile compounds and physiological traits, and the parallelisms between precursors and volatile product, are discussed as they offer clues about loquat quality-associated metabolic changes during ripening.     

Advantageous attributes of larval whitefringed weevil, Naupactus leucoloma (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) for bioassaying soil fumigants, and responses to pure and plant-derived isothiocyanates

First instars of the soil-inhabiting whitefringed weevil, Naupactus leucoloma (Boheman), are a particularly good bioassay model for assessing volatile soil fumigants and biofumigants. Eggs are readily obtained and can be stored for long periods with larvae hatched on demand and the first instar is non-feeding, surviving without food or shelter. Longevity varies with temperature, but readily accommodates the period required to conduct bioassays without appreciable mortality of untreated controls. In vitro bioassays of pure methyl isothiocyanate, the active ingredient from metham sodium soil fumigant, and the less volatile 2-phenylethyl isothiocyanate, sensitively detected differences in toxicity and effects of temperature. Bioassay of volatiles emitted from hydrolysed tissue of various isothiocyanate-producing Brassica plants revealed widely varying toxicity effects, indicating that bioassays with N. leucoloma are a sensitive and relevant indicator of the potential of different plants for biofumigation of soil-borne pest organisms.     

Volatile compounds emitted by Triatoma dimidiata,a vector of Chagas disease: chemical analysis and behavioural evaluation

In this study, we evaluated the responses of Triatoma dimidiata Latreille (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) to volatiles emitted by conspecific females, males, mating pairs and metasternal gland (MG) extracts with a Y‐tube olfactometer. The volatile compounds released by mating pairs and MGs of T. dimidiata were identified using solid‐phase microextraction and coupled gas chromatography‐mass spectrometry (GC‐MS). Females were not attracted to volatiles emitted by males or MG extracts; however, they preferred clean air to their own volatiles or those from mating pairs. Males were attracted to volatiles emitted by males, females, mating pairs, pairs in which the male had the MG orifices occluded or MG extracts of both sexes. However, males were not attracted to volatiles emitted by pairs in which the female had the MG orifices occluded. The chemical analyses showed that 14 and 15 compounds were detected in the headspace of mating pairs and MG, respectively. Most of the compounds identified from MG except for isobutyric acid were also detected in the headspace of mating pairs. Both females and males were attracted to octanal and 6‐methyl‐5‐hepten‐2‐one, and males were attracted to 3,5‐dimethyl‐2‐hexanol. Males but not females were attracted to a seven‐compound blend, formulated from compounds identified in attractive MG extracts.     

枣飞象对枣树植物挥发物的EAG和行为反应

【目的】枣飞象Scythropus yasumatsui是枣树Zizyphus jujuba主要害虫。近年来,在陕西和山西枣区暴发成灾,造成了严重的经济和生态损失。本研究旨在明确枣树挥发性物质在枣飞象成虫化学通讯中的作用,为该虫植物源引诱剂开发和研制提供基础资料。【方法】利用顶空吸附法收集5个枣树品种(木枣、狗头枣、赞皇枣、骏枣和酸枣)的枣芽挥发物,采用气质联用(GC-MS)进行化学指纹谱的鉴定和分析;随后分别利用触角电位(electroantennogram, EAG)仪和Y型嗅觉仪测定枣飞象成虫对17种枣树挥发性物质的EAG和行为反应。【结果】5个品种枣树的枣芽中共鉴定出挥发性物质6类26种,包括9种萜烯类、6种酯类、4种醇类、4种烷类、2种醛类和1种酚类;不同品种枣芽挥发性物质种类和含量具有差异。EAG试验结果表明,枣飞象成虫对测试的17种枣树挥发性物质的EAG反应相对值有明显差异。枣飞象成虫对D-柠檬烯、正十三烷、正十四烷、正十五烷、壬醛、棕榈酸甲酯、油酸甲酯7种挥发性物质的EAG反应较强。当挥发性物质浓度为0.1~100 μg/μL时,随着浓度增加,枣飞象成虫的EAG反应相对值先增加后下降,刺激浓度为50 μg/μL时EAG反应相对值达到最大。50 μg/μL浓度下,枣飞象雌成虫对棕榈酸甲酯和壬醛EAG反应相对值分别为3.84和3.67,雄成虫对棕榈酸甲酯和壬醛EAG反应相对值分别为3.47和3.21,极显著高于对其他挥发性物质的EAG反应相对值。行为反应结果表明,枣飞象雌雄成虫对棕榈酸甲酯和壬醛有明显趋向性, 选择率均大于65%,雄成虫对十五烷有明显趋向性,雌雄成虫对其他供试的物质无明显趋向性。【结论】棕榈酸甲酯和壬醛对枣飞象雌雄成虫均有明显吸引作用,十五烷对雄成虫有明显吸引作用。结果提示棕榈酸甲酯和壬醛可能与枣飞象对不同品种枣树偏好性选择密切相关。     

Dynamic changes in volatile emissions of breeding burying beetles

Burying beetles reproduce on small vertebrate carcasses by exhibiting elaborate biparental brood care. Partner recognition in breeding Nicrophorus species (Coleoptera: Silphidae) relies substantially on information encoded in cuticular hydrocarbon profiles. Until recently, it was unknown whether breeding burying beetles also produce volatile low molecular weight substances and, if so, which functions can be attributed to such volatiles. The present study reports a survey of the volatiles released by males and females of Nicrophorus vespilloides Herbst in nonbreeding status and at different stages of breeding. Headspace analyses are performed by using solid phase micro‐extraction fibres and gas chromatography–mass spectrometry. The volatiles released by nonbreeding males and females include phenolic compounds, alcohols, aldehydes and ketones and are quite similar in both sexes. With the onset of breeding, the volatile profiles of males and females become distinct, with a number of female‐specific compounds occurring. An analysis of the anal secretions reveals the presence of some of the compounds previously detected in the headspace analysis. The specific chemical properties suggest that some of the volatiles may function against competitors and parasites, such as bacteria, fungi, nematodes and arthropods at the carcass breeding resource. By contrast, the emission of 4‐methyl branched esters by the females closely parallels the emission of the terpenoid methyl geranate and they may function together as a complex signal by the females. Signalling traits associated with biparental care and specific constraints associated with the ephemeral nature of the breeding resource may explain the occurrence of both groups of compounds in the volatile profiles.     

Queen-specific volatile in a higher termite Nasutitermes takasagoensis (Isoptera: Termitidae)

In social insect colonies, queen-produced pheromones have important functions in social regulation. These substances influence the behavior and physiology of colony members. A queen-produced volatile that inhibits differentiation of new neotenic reproductives was recently identified in the lower termite Reticulitermes speratus. However, there are no known queen-specific volatiles of this type in any other termite species. Here, we report volatile compounds emitted by live queens of the higher termite Nasutitermes takasagoensis. We used headspace gas chromatography mass spectroscopy (HS GC-MS) to analyze volatiles emitted by live primary queens, workers, soldiers, alates, and eggs collected in a Japanese subtropical forest. Among 14 detected compounds, 7 were soldier-specific, 1 was alate-specific, 1 was egg-specific, and 1 was queen-specific. The queen-specific volatile was phenylethanol, which is different than the compound identified in R. speratus. The identification of this queen-specific volatile is the first step in determining its functions in higher termite social regulation. Comparisons of queen pheromone substances regulating caste differentiation among various termite taxa will contribute to a better understanding of the evolution of social systems in termites.     

A variety of volatile compounds as markers in unifloral honey from dalmatian sage (Salvia officinalis L.)

Volatile compounds of unifloral Salvia officinalis L. honey has been investigated for the first time. The botanical origin of ten unifloral Salvia honey samples has been ascertained by pollen analysis (the honey samples displayed 23-60% of Salvia pollen). Fifty-four volatile compounds were identified by GC and GC/MS in ten Salvia honey extracts obtained by ultrasound-assisted extraction (USE) with pentane/Et(2)O 1 : 2. The yield of isolated volatiles varied from 25.7 to 30.5 mg kg(-1). Salvia honey could be distinguished on the basis of the high percentage of benzoic acid (6.4-14.8%), and especially phenylacetic acid (5.7-18.4%). Minor, but floral-origin important volatiles were identified such as shikimate pathway derivatives, 'degraded-carotenoid-like' structures (3,5,5-trimethylcyclohex-2-ene derivatives) and 2,6,6-trimethylcyclohex-2-ene derivatives. Compounds from other metabolic pathways such as aliphatic acids and higher linear hydrocarbons, as well as heterocycles (pyrans, furans, and pyrroles), were also present. Most of the identified compounds do not constitute specific Salvia honey markers, due to their presence in honeys of other botanical origins; however, their ratio in different honeys could be useful to distinguish floral origin. Salvia-honey volatile markers were: benzoic acid, phenylacetic acid, p-anisaldehyde, alpha-isophorone, 4-ketoisophorone, dehydrovomifoliol, 2,6,6-trimethyl-4-oxocyclohex-2-ene-1-carbaldehyde, 2,2,6-trimethylcyclohexane-1,4-dione, and coumaran.