Snub‐nosed monkeys: Multilevel societies across varied environments

The ecology and behavior of the four species of Rhinopithecus, snub‐nosed monkeys, are rapidly becoming well known. New field studies reveal in depth the striking adaptations of these colobines. Diets range from those typical for tropical colobines to diets dominated by lichens. The monkeys form bands, at times consisting of more than 400 individuals; these bands are based on the one‐male, multi‐female units common in colobines. We review the diet, range use, and social organization of snub‐nosed monkeys, and then explore the power of socioecological theory to explain their multilevel social organization.     

Reproductive parameters in Guizhou snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus brelichi)

In this study, we present data on reproductive parameters and birth seasonality of Guizhou snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus brelichi). Our analyses are based on data from a small captive population collected over 15 years and on 5 years of observations of free‐ranging snub‐nosed monkeys. Captive females (n=4) mature at an age of 70.8±6.7 months and reproduce for the first time at 103.4±7.5 months. The mean interbirth interval was 38.2±4.4 months if the infant survived more than 6 months, which is longer than that in R. roxellana and R. bieti. In the wild and in captivity, births are very seasonal and occur only in a period from the end of March to the end of April. Our data suggest that population growth in Guizhou snub‐nosed monkeys is slow compared with the other two Chinese snub‐nosed monkey species. The risk of extinction is therefore particularly high in this species, given the small overall population size and slow population recovery potential. Am. J. Primatol. 71:266–270, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The mating system of the Sichuan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana)

This article reports the first genetic study of the mating system of the Sichuan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), an endemic and endangered species in China. The investigation was carried out in a population (WRT) in the Qinling Mountains using data from both field observation and paternity analysis through microsatellite DNA profiling. During a mating season, a male on an average copulated with 5.7 females. Approximately 18% of the females were observed to copulate with more than one male over the study period. The majority of copulations (94.5%) were initiated by females. Twenty‐eight of 430 observed matings were extra‐unit copulations. Eight polymorphic microsatellite loci were used for paternity analysis. The number of alleles at each locus ranged from 3 to 7 (mean=4.3). Observed heterozygosity ranged between 0.32 and 0.79. None of the loci showed significant deviation from Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium. Results from paternity exclusion showed that 12 of 21 (57.1%) immature individuals were sired by extra‐unit males. Although the basic social unit of snub‐nosed monkeys is consistent with a polygynous mating system, both field observation and genetic data suggests that their mating system is polygamous. Infanticide and inbreeding avoidance are the most likely explanations for the promiscuity of female snub‐nosed monkeys. Am. J. Primatol. 72:25–32, 2010. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

The men of Nelson's navy: a comparative stable isotope dietary study of late 18th century and early 19th century servicemen from Royal Naval Hospital burial grounds at Plymouth and Gosport, England

The Guizhou snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi) is a primate species endemic to the Wuling Mountains in southern China. With a maximum of 800 wild animals, the species is endangered and one of the rarest Chinese primates. To assess the genetic diversity within R. brelichi and to analyze its genetic population structure, we collected fecal samples from the wild R. brelichi population and sequenced the hypervariable region I of the mitochondrial control region from 141 individuals. We compared our data with those from the two other Chinese snub‐nosed species (R. roxellana, R. bieti) and reconstructed their phylogenetic relationships and divergence times. With only five haplotypes and a maximum of 25 polymorphic sites, R. brelichi shows the lowest genetic diversity in terms of haplotype diversity (h), nucleotide diversity (π), and average number of pairwise nucleotide differences (Π). The most recent common ancestor of R. brelichi lived ～0.36 million years ago (Ma), thus more recently than those of R. roxellana (～0.91 Ma) and R. bieti (～1.33 Ma). Phylogenetic analysis and analysis of molecular variance revealed a clear and significant differentiation among the three Chinese snub‐nosed monkey species. Population genetic analyses (Tajima's D, Fu's F_s, and mismatch distribution) suggest a stable population size for R. brelichi. For the other two species, results point in the same direction, but population substructure possibly introduces some ambiguity. Because of the lower genetic variation, the smaller population size and the more restricted distribution, R. brelichi might be more vulnerable to environmental changes or climate oscillations than the other two Chinese snub‐nosed monkey species. Am J Phys Anthropol, 2012. © 2011 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Resequencing and comparison of whole mitochondrial genome to gain insight into the evolutionary status of the Shennongjia golden snub‐nosed monkey (SNJ R. roxellana)

Shennongjia Rhinopithecus roxellana (SNJ R. roxellana) is the smallest geographical population of R. roxellana. The phylogenetic relationships among its genera and species and the biogeographic processes leading to their current distribution are largely unclear. To address these issues, we resequenced and obtained a new, complete mitochondrial genome of SNJ R. roxellana by next‐generation sequencing and standard Sanger sequencing. We analyzed the gene composition, constructed a phylogenetic tree, inferred the divergence ages based on complete mitochondrial genome sequences, and analyzed the genetic divergence of 13 functional mtDNA genes. The phylogenetic tree and divergence ages showed that R. avunculus (the Tonkin snub‐nosed monkey) was the first to diverge from the Rhinopithecus genus ca. 2.47 million years ago (Ma). Rhinopithecus bieti and Rhinopithecus strykeri formed sister groups, and the second divergence from the Rhinopithecus genus occurred ca. 1.90 Ma. R. roxellana and R. brelichi diverged from the Rhinopithecus genus third, ca. 1.57 Ma. SNJ R. roxellana was the last to diverge within R. roxellana species in 0.08 Ma, and the most recent common ancestor of R. roxellana is 0.10 Ma. The analyses on gene composition showed SNJ R. roxellana was the newest geographic population of R. roxellana. The work will help to develop a more accurate protection policy for SNJ R. roxellana and facilitate further research on selection and adaptation of R. roxellana.     

Social dynamics of the golden snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana): female transfer and one‐male unit succession

Among primates that form multilevel societies, understanding factors and mechanisms associated with the movement of individuals between groups, clans, and one‐male social units offers important insight into primate reproductive and social strategies. In this research we present data based on an 8‐year field study of a multilevel troop of Sichuan snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in the Qinling Mountains of China. Our study troop contained 78–126 individuals, and was usually organized into 6–8 one‐male units (OMU). The majority of OMUs were composed of networks of unrelated females and their offspring. We found that 59.7% (43/72) of subadult and adult females in our study troop transferred between OMUs (n=66) or disappeared (n=7) from the troop. In the majority of cases, two or more females transferred together into new OMUs or troops. In R. roxellana, new OMUs formed in several ways. During 2001–2008, 16 adult males appeared in the study troop. Over this period, we observed 13 different males who became harem leaders either by taking over an existing harem or by attracting females from other OMUs into their harem. We also observed four OMUs from a neighboring troop to successfully immigrate into the study troop. The number of individuals in these newly immigrated OMUs was significantly smaller than that number of individuals in resident OMUs. During harem formation, fighting between adult males was rarely observed, and female mate choice appeared to play a crucial role in harem male recruitment and replacement. These results suggest that golden snub‐nosed monkeys are organized in a nonmatrilineal social system. Female mate choice and possibly incest avoidance appear to play important roles in female transfer, male tenure, and OMU stability. Am. J. Primatol. 71:670–679, 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Historical geographic dispersal of the golden snub-nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) and the influence of climatic oscillations

Current understanding of historic climate oscillations that have occurred over the past few million years has modified scientific views on evolution. Major climatic events have caused local and global extinction of plants and animals and have impacted the spatial distribution of many species. The endangered golden snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) currently inhabits three isolated regions of China: the Sichuan and Gansu provinces (SG), the Qinling Mountains in Shaanxi province (QL), and the Shennongjia Forestry District in Hubei province (SNJ). However, considerable uncertainty still exists about their historical dispersal routes under the influence of environment change. To date, two dispersal routes have been proposed: (1) the QL and SNJ populations originated from the SG population; and (2) the SG population recolonized from the QL and SNJ populations. We used the mitochondrial DNA complete control region to perform statistical assessments of the relative probability of alternative migration scenarios and the role of environmental change on the geographic dispersal of Rhinopithecus roxellana. Thirty haplotypes were identified from the three geographic regions and a high degree of genetic structure was observed. The most recent common ancestor among the mitochondrial DNA haplotypes was estimated to live around 0.47–1.88 million years ago and five notable haplotype clusters were found. Phylogenetic analysis and historical gene flow estimates suggested that the QL and SNJ populations originated from the SG population, with at least two dispersal events from the SG population occurring during the Pleistocene (1.17±0.70 and 0.53±0.30 Ma). Composite dispersal history of the golden snub‐nosed monkey can be explained by both environmental change inducing global climate change and the influence of the Tibetan Plateau uplift. Such range shifts involved considerable demographic changes, as revealed in the dramatic decreases in population size during the last 25,000 years.     

Extinction of Snub-Nosed Monkeys in China During the Past 400 Years

We describe the historical change in distribution of snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus), a genus which includes 3 of the 4 endemic primate species in China, from the Qing Dynasty (1616) to 2001. The monkeys were once widely distributed in south, southwest and central China, and in two provinces in northwest China (Gansu and Shaanxi). Unfortunately, most of their populations in the plains and in some mountainous regions have vanished. Today, extant groups occur only in isolated mountainous regions with an altitude 4,500 m above sea level. The dramatic diminution is closely related to social and natural events, which occurred in China during the last 400 years. 1) the rapidly increasing density of human beings, especially during the twentieth century; 2) wars, especially in the first half of the 20th century; 3) deteriorating environments and accelerated deforestation and 4) hunting monkeys for food, medicinal and economic purposes.     

川金丝猴遗传多样性的蛋白电泳及其保护生物学意义

利用同功酶粉凝胶电泳技术检测了严自甘肃摩天岭和陕西秦岭两个地区的１９只川金丝猴（Ｒｈｉｎｏｐｉｔｈｅｃｕｓｒｏｘｅｌｌａｎａｅ）的４４个遗传座位,没有发现多态座位。其平均遗传杂合度为０。这与滇金丝猴的平均遗传杂合度处于同一水平。     

Population genetics and ecological niche modelling provide insights into management strategies of the herbivorous pest Phytomyza horticola (Diptera: Agromyzidae)

Aim

Research on population genetic patterns and potential distribution dynamics can provide insights into the development of pest management strategies. Herein, we integrated population genetic analyses with the climatic niche approach to investigate spatial population genetic variations and potential geographical distribution (PGD) of the herbivorous pest Phytomyza horticola. We also analysed its population response patterns to both late Pleistocene climatic events and future climate change.

Location

China.

Methods

We analysed the patterns of genetic diversity distribution in 29 populations from 19 regions across China using three mitochondrial (COI, COII and Cytb) genes as markers. We estimated demographic histories using neutrality tests, mismatch distributions and Bayesian skyline plots. Changes in PGD were assessed using an ecological niche model.

Results

High genetic diversity was found in most populations, and the northern population exhibited higher haplotype diversity. The population genetic structure included the Tibet lineage and a large lineage comprising the remaining populations. Demographic analyses indicated that rapid population expansion occurred during the cold Last Glacial Maximum. In addition, our projections suggested that P. horticola currently has a vast PGD in China, for which the human influence index was the strongest variable. Large areas of cold northern regions were highly suitable for its survival. Under future global warming, highly suitable habitats will shift towards the higher latitudes.

Main conclusions

P. horticola is widely distributed across varied environments, which may be attributed to its high degree of genetic variation. Human activities likely facilitated the current PGD and the frequent gene flow that homogenized differentiation among most populations. In addition, P. horticola exhibits strong adaptability to cold climates and environments from the past to the future. Considering future climatic changes, prevention and control should focus on high-latitude regions, and vigilance regarding human-mediated pest dispersals and outbreaks should be maintained.     

Gut microbiota in wild and captive Guizhou snub‐nosed monkeys,Rhinopithecus brelichi

Many colobine species—including the endangered Guizhou snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus brelichi) are difficult to maintain in captivity and frequently exhibit gastrointestinal (GI) problems. GI problems are commonly linked to alterations in the gut microbiota, which lead us to examine the gut microbial communities of wild and captive R. brelichi. We used high‐throughput sequencing of the 16S rRNA gene to compare the gut microbiota of wild (N = 7) and captive (N = 8) R. brelichi. Wild monkeys exhibited increased gut microbial diversity based on the Chao1 but not Shannon diversity metric and greater relative abundances of bacteria in the Lachnospiraceae and Ruminococcaceae families. Microbes in these families digest complex plant materials and produce butyrate, a short chain fatty acid critical to colonocyte health. Captive monkeys had greater relative abundances of Prevotella and Bacteroides species, which degrade simple sugars and carbohydrates, like those present in fruits and cornmeal, two staples of the captive R. brelichi diet. Captive monkeys also had a greater abundance of Akkermansia species, a microbe that can thrive in the face of host malnutrition. Taken together, these findings suggest that poor health in captive R. brelichi may be linked to diet and an altered gut microbiota.     

Nocturnal sleeping habits of the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey in Xiangguqing,China

Weather, predation, and social organization are hypothesized to influence sleeping habits of nonhuman primates at night. To investigate how the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus bieti) prepares for and behaves during cold nights in their harsh alpine forest habitat (above 3,000 m), we studied the sleeping habits of the 171 one‐male units (OMU) in one group for 12 months at Xiangguqing in the Baimaxueshan Nature Reserve, China. It took 20.2 min from the time the study group entered a sleeping site until they fell asleep. This duration was consistent over seasons. On average, sleeping time was 11.5 hr per night over the year. Seasonal mean lengths of sleeping time varied significantly, however, and ranged from 10 to 13 hr per night, correlating with night length. Two sleeping styles were distinguishable: solitary sleeping and huddled sleeping. That adult males in OMUs principally slept alone. This is likely to reflect night‐time guarding behavior. Female–juvenile and female–infant dyadic huddles were the most prevalent sleeping unit (42% of all observed data), and the monkeys employed female‐biased huddling during nocturnal sleep. Huddled sleeping group size showed significant seasonal variation, with the largest huddle (eight individuals) occurring in winter. Climate and social organization profoundly influence the nocturnal sleeping habits of R. bieti, while huddling behavior may help shield animals from cold nights and provide additional protection against predators. Am. J. Primatol. 72:1092–1099, 2010. © 2010 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Independent introductions and sequential founder events shape genetic differentiation and diversity of the invasive green anole (Anolis carolinensis) on Pacific Islands

Aim

Natural range expansions and human‐mediated colonizations usually involve a small number of individuals that establish new populations in novel habitats. In both cases, founders carry only a fraction of the total genetic variation of the source populations. Here, we used native and non‐native populations of the green anole, Anolis carolinensis, to compare the current distribution of genetic variation in populations shaped by natural range expansion and human‐mediated colonization.

Location

North America, Hawaiian Islands, Western Pacific Islands.

Methods

We analysed 401 mtDNA haplotypes to infer the colonization history of A. carolinensis on nine islands in the Pacific Ocean. We then genotyped 576 individuals at seven microsatellite loci to assess the levels of genetic diversity and population genetic differentiation for both the native and non‐native ranges.

Results

Our findings support two separate introductions to the Hawaiian Islands and several western Pacific islands, with subsequent colonizations within each region following a stepping‐stone model. Genetic diversity at neutral markers was significantly lower in the non‐native range because of founder effects, which also contributed to the increased population genetic differentiation among the non‐native regions. In contrast, a steady reduction in genetic diversity with increasing distance from the ancestral population was observed in the native range following range expansion.

Main conclusions

Range expansions cause serial founder events that are the spatial analogue of genetic drift, producing a pattern of isolation‐by‐distance in the native range of the species. In human‐mediated colonizations, after an initial loss of genetic diversity, founder effects appear to persist, resulting in overall high genetic differentiation among non‐native regions but an absence of isolation‐by‐distance. Contrasting the processes influencing the amount and structuring of genetic variability during natural range expansion and human‐mediated biological invasions can shed new light on the fate of natural populations exposed to novel and changing environments.

     

Influence of day length,ambient temperature,and seasonality on daily travel distance in the Yunnan snub‐nosed monkey at Jinsichang,Yunnan, China

This article examines the effect of ambient temperature, day length, weather conditions, and seasonality on daily path length (DPL) of a free‐ranging group of Yunnan snub‐nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus bieti) using an auto‐released GPS collar. Data were collected from December 17, 2003 to October 22, 2004 at Laojunshan in northwestern Yunnan province, China. The average DPL of the monkey group was 909±472 m (n=291), with the shortest distance being 180 m and the longest distance 3,626 m. Ambient temperature and day length were found to affect DPL. Both factors were positively correlated with DPL, which means that the monkey group traveled greater distances on longer and warmer days. At the study site, three distinct seasons were identified, and DPL did not vary significantly across these periods. The time of sunrise was not correlated with DPL. Nevertheless, we sometimes observed the group starting its daily trip later on cloudy days than on sunny days. Furthermore, weather conditions (e.g. rainy, cloudy, and sunny) did not influence the average DPL of the study group. Overall we found that the primary factors affecting DPL in R. bieti were day length and ambient temperature, especially daily highest temperature. Am. J. Primatol. 71:233–241, 2009. © 2008 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Phylogeography of the cold‐water barnacle Chthamalus challengeri in the north‐western Pacific: effect of past population expansion and contemporary gene flow

Aim Phylogeographical patterns of marine organisms in the north‐western Pacific are shaped by the interaction of past sea‐level fluctuations during glacial maxima and present‐day gene flow. This study examines whether observed population differentiation in the barnacle Chthamalus challengeri, which is endemic to the north‐western Pacific, can be explained by the interactions between historical glacial events and patterns of contemporary gene flow. Location Eleven locations in the north‐western Pacific. Methods Partial sequences of mitochondrial cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI), 12S, 16S and nuclear internal transcribed spacer 1 (ITS1) were obtained from 312 individuals. Parsimony haplotype networks and analysis of molecular variance (AMOVA) were used to determine whether the observed genetic structure corresponds to marine provinces (Kuroshio Current and China Sea Coastal Provinces), zoogeographical zones (oriental and Japan warm‐temperate zones) and/or potential refugial areas (Sea of Japan and East China Sea) in the north‐western Pacific. Neutrality tests, mismatch distribution analysis and Bayesian skyline plots were used to infer the demographic history of C. challengeri. Results In total, 312, 117, 182 and 250 sequences were obtained for COI, 12S, 16S and ITS1, respectively. A panmictic population was revealed, which did not conform to the ‘isolation by distance’ model. None of the a priori population groupings based on marine provinces, zoogeographical zones or potential refugial areas was associated with observed genetic patterns. Significant negative values from neutrality tests and the unimodal mismatch distribution and expansion patterns in Bayesian skyline plots for the COI and 16S data sets indicate a population expansion in the mid‐Pleistocene (c. 200 ka). Information from the fossil record suggests that there has been a northward range shift of this species from the East China Sea or the Palaeo‐Pacific coast of Japan to the Sea of Japan since the mid‐Pleistocene. Main conclusions Chthamalus challengeri has experienced a population expansion and range shift since the mid‐Pleistocene. The observed lack of population differentiation can be explained by this past population expansion and present‐day wide‐scale larval dispersal (owing to the long planktonic larval duration) across marine provinces, which have led to the successful establishment of the species in different zoogeographical zones and habitats.     

Identifying refugia and corridors under climate change conditions for the Sichuan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana) in Hubei Province,China

Using a case study of an isolated management unit of Sichuan snub‐nosed monkey (Rhinopithecus roxellana), we assess the extent that climate change will impact the species’ habitat distribution in the current period and projected into the 2050s. We identify refugia that could maintain the population under climate change and determine dispersal paths for movement of the population to future suitable habitats. Hubei Province, China. We identified climate refugia and potential movements by integrating bioclimatic models with circuit theory and least‐cost model for the current period (1960–1990) and the 2050s (2041–2060). We coupled a maximum entropy algorithm to predict suitable habitat for the current and projected future periods. Suitable habitat areas that were identified during both time periods and that also satisfied home range and dispersal distance conditions were delineated as refugia. We mapped potential movements measured as current flow and linked current and future habitats using least‐cost corridors. Our results indicate up to 1,119 km² of currently suitable habitat within the study range. Based on our projections, a habitat loss of 67.2% due to climate change may occur by the 2050s, resulting in a reduced suitable habitat area of 406 km² and very little new habitat. The refugia areas amounted to 286 km² and were located in Shennongjia National Park and Badong Natural Reserve. Several connecting corridors between the current and future habitats, which are important for potential movements, were identified. Our assessment of the species predicted a trajectory of habitat loss following anticipated future climate change. We believe conservation efforts should focus on refugia and corridors when planning for future species management. This study will assist conservationists in determining high‐priority regions for effective maintenance of the endangered population under climate change and will encourage increased habitat connectivity.     

Polylepis woodland dynamics during the last 20,000 years

Aim

To determine the palaeoecological influences of climate change and human land use on the spatial distribution patterns of Polylepis woodlands in the Andes.

Location

Tropical Andes above 2,900 m between 2°S and 18°S of latitude.

Methods

Pollen and charcoal data were gathered from 13 Andean lake sediment records and were rescaled by the maximum value in each site. The rescaled pollen data were used to estimate a mean abundance and coefficient of variation to show woodland expansions/contractions and woodland fragmentation over the last 20,000 years. The rescaled charcoal was displayed as a 200‐year moving median using 500‐year bins to infer the influence of fire on woodland dynamics at landscape scale. Pollen and charcoal were compared with speleothem, clastic flux and archaeological data to assess the influence of moisture balance, glacial activity and human impact on the spatial distribution of Polylepis woodlands.

Results

Woodland expansion and fire were correlated with precipitation changes and glacier dynamics from c. 20 to 6 kcal bp (thousands of calibrated years before present). Charcoal abundances between 20 and 12 kcal bp were less common than from 12 kcal bp to modern. However, human‐induced fires were unlikely to be the main cause of a woodland decline centred at 11 kcal bp , as woodlands recovered from 10.5 to 9.5 kcal bp (about twofold increase). Charcoal peaks analogous to those that induced the woodland decline at 11 kcal bp were commonplace post‐9.5 kcal bp but did not trigger an equivalent woodland contraction. An increase in the coefficient of variation after c. 5.5 kcal bp suggests enhanced fragmentation and coincided with the shift from logistic to exponential growth of human populations. Over the last 1,000 years, Polylepis became hyper‐fragmented with over half of sites losing Polylepis from the record and with coefficients of variation paralleling those of glacial times.

Main conclusions

Polylepis woodlands formed naturally patchy woodlands, rather than a continuous vegetation belt, prior to human occupation in the Andes. The main factors controlling pre‐human woodland dynamics were precipitation and landscape heterogeneity. Human activity led to hyper‐fragmentation during the last c. 1,000 years.     

Radial growth response to climate change along the latitudinal range of the world's southernmost conifer in southern South America

Aim

We examined whether and how tree radial‐growth responses to climate have changed for the world's southernmost conifer species throughout its latitudinal distribution following rapid climate change in the second half of the 20th century.

Location

Temperate forests in southern South America.

Methods

New and existing tree‐ring radial growth chronologies representing the entire latitudinal range of Pilgerodendron uviferum were grouped according to latitude and then examined for differences in growth trends and non‐stationarity in growth responses to a drought severity index (scPDSI) over the 1900–1993 AD period and also before and after significant shifts in climate in the 1950s and 1970s.

Results

The radial‐growth response of P. uviferum climate was highly variable across its full latitudinal distribution. There was a long‐term and positive association between radial growth and higher moisture at the northern and southern edges of the distribution of this species and the opposite relationship for the core of its distribution, especially following the climatic shifts of the 1950s and 1970s. In addition, non‐stationarity in moisture‐radial growth relationships was observed in all three latitudinal groups (southern and northern edges and core) for all seasons during the 20th century.

Main conclusions

Climate shifts in southern South America in the 1950s and 1970s resulted in different responses in the mean radial growth of P. uviferum at the southern and northern edges and at the core of its range. Dendroclimatic analyses document that during the first half of the 20th century climate‐growth relationships were relatively similar between the southern and northern range edges but diverged after the 1950s. Our findings imply that simulated projections of climate impacts on tree growth, and by implication on forest ecosystem productivity, derived from models of past climate‐growth relationships need to carefully consider different and non‐stationarity responses along the wide latitudinal distribution of this species.     

First discovery of colobine fossils from the early to middle Pleistocene of southern Taiwan

Here we report on two kinds of cercopithecid fossil monkeys (Cercopithecinae and Colobinae) from the early to middle Pleistocene sediments of the Chochen (=Tsochen) area (Tsailiao-chi or Shinhua Hill), southern Taiwan. The fossil specimens include the first fossil record of colobine monkeys from Taiwan, where only macaque monkeys now occur. All cercopithecine fossils were identified as Macaca cf. Macaca cyclopis, the extant Taiwan macaque, except for one extremely large isolated upper molar, which may belong to another macaque species. On the other hand, all colobine specimens fall within the size variation of extant and extinct Rhinopithecus, but its specific status cannot be determined because of the scantiness of the fossil material. In Taiwan, Rhinopithecus presumably became extinct in the late Pleistocene, probably owing to global cooling and vegetation change, whereas macaques, which are of almost the same body size as Rhinopithecus, survived as M. cyclopis to the present. The contrasting history of survival between the two kinds of monkeys may be due to ecological/behavioral differences between them or as a result of accidental events that occurred in the Pleistocene of Taiwan.