Review: Feed demand landscape and implications of food-not feed strategy for food security and climate change

The food-feed competition is one of the complex challenges, and so are the ongoing climate change, land degradation and water shortage for realizing sustainable food production systems. By 2050 the global demand for animal products is projected to increase by 60% to 70%, and developing countries will have a lion’s share in this increase. Currently, ~800 million tonnes of cereals (one-third of total cereal production) are used in animal feed and by 2050 it is projected to be over 1.1 billion tonnes. Most of the increase in feed demand will be in developing countries, which already face many food security challenges. Additional feed required for the projected increased demand of animal products, if met through food grains, will further exacerbate the food insecurity in these countries. Furthermore, globally, the production, processing and transport of feed account for 45% of the greenhouse gas emissions from the livestock sector. This paper presents approaches for addressing these challenges in quest for making livestock sector more sustainable. The use of novel human-inedible feed resources such as insect meals, leaf meals, protein isolates, single cell protein produced using waste streams, protein hydrolysates, spineless cactus, algae, co-products of the biofuel industry, food wastes among others, has enormous prospects. Efficient use of grasslands also offers possibilities for increasing carbon sequestration, land reclamation and livestock productivity. Opportunities also exist for decreasing feed wastages by simple and well proven practices such as use of appropriate troughs, increase in efficiency of harvesting crop residues and their conversion to complete feeds especially in the form of densified feed blocks or pellets, feeding as per the nutrient requirements, among others. Available evidence have been presented to substantiate arguments that: (a) for successful and sustained adoption of a feed technology, participation of the private sector and a sound business plan are required, (b) for sustainability of the livestock production systems, it is also important to consider the consumption of animal products and a case has been presented to assess future needs of animal source foods based on their requirements for healthy living, (c) for dairy animals, calculation of Emission Intensity based on the lifetime lactation rather than one lactation may also be considered and (d) for assessment of the efficiency of livestock production systems a holistic approach is required that takes into consideration social dimensions and net human-edible protein output from the system in addition to carbon and water footprints.     

When more is more: taking advantage of species diversity to move towards sustainable aquaculture

Human population growth has increased demand for food products, which is expected to double in coming decades. Until recently, this demand has been met by expanding agricultural area and intensifying agrochemical-based monoculture of a few species. However, this development pathway has been criticised due to its negative impacts on the environment and other human activities. Therefore, new production practices are needed to meet human food requirements sustainably in the future. Herein, we assert that polyculture practices can ensure the transition of aquaculture towards sustainable development. We review traditional and recent polyculture practices (ponds, recirculated aquaculture systems, integrated multi-trophic aquaculture, aquaponics, integrated agriculture–aquaculture) to highlight how they improve aquaculture through the coexistence and interactions of species. This overview highlights the importance of species compatibility (i.e. species that can live in the same farming environment without detrimental interactions) and complementarity (i.e. complementary use of available resources and/or commensalism/mutualism) to achieve efficient and ethical aquaculture. Overall, polyculture combines aspects of productivity, environmental protection, resource sharing, and animal welfare. However, several challenges must be addressed to facilitate polyculture development across the world. We developed a four-step conceptual framework for designing innovative polyculture systems. This framework highlights the importance of (i) using prospective approaches to consider which species to combine, (ii) performing integrated assessment of rearing environments to determine in which farming system a particular combination of species is the most relevant, (iii) developing new tools and strategies to facilitate polyculture system management, and (iv) implementing polyculture innovation for relevant stakeholders involved in aquaculture transitions.     

Essential role of seaweed cultivation in integrated multi-trophic aquaculture farms for global expansion of mariculture: an analysis

Ecologically friendly aquaculture crops, such as seaweeds, herbivores, omnivores, and detritivores can be cultured using relatively less of our limited natural resources and produce relatively less pollution. They also top FAO’s estimates of aquaculture crops for the 21st century. These crops already comprise nearly 90% of global aquaculture tonnage, >90% of all aquaculture production in China and >60% of production even in North America. Consumers prefer them, most likely due to their low prices. Production costs of organisms low on the food chain are low due to the ability of these organisms to efficiently utilize low-cost, mostly plant-based diets and to recycle their own waste. Thus, ecologically friendly aquaculture is not a dream but a dominant global reality. The less ecologically-friendly aquaculture of salmon, sea bream, fed shrimp, among others, has attracted public opposition to aquaculture, but these crops totaled approximately only 10% of global production in 2004. The profitability of industrialized monocultures of these crops is threatened further by rising costs of energy and feed, environmental regulation compliance, disease, and public opposition. Current monoculture practices and perceptions intrinsic to the aquaculture industry can be turned around into a vision of sustained profitable expansion of carnivores production with trophically lower organisms in ecologically-balanced aquaculture farms. This category of aquaculture, which is the modern intensive form of polyculture practiced in Asia, feeds the waste of carnivore culture to lower trophic level organisms, primarily algae and mollusks. Species are selected based on their ecological functions in addition to their economic potential. Ecologically-balanced farms turn the costly treatment of carnivore waste outside the farm to a revenue-generating process of biofiltration, conversion, and resource recovery into plant and mollusk crops inside the farm. In doing so, they solve several of the major problems faced by modern aquaculture. The aquaculture industry can protect its own interests – and reap major benefits – by understanding the importance of ecological balance, the potential of seaweeds as components in feeds, and the importance of the culture and R&D of low trophic level organisms. The industry should also accept the relevance of environmental, social, and image aspects of aquaculture to its success. Governments have the tools to reward multi-trophic farms with seaweeds by means of tax credits and nutrient credits and to penalize unbalanced monoculture approaches by means of ‘polluter pays’ fines, thereby providing the multi-trophic farms with a significant economic advantage. Such measures have been discussed, but their implementation has been slow.     

中国淡水渔业碳汇强度估算

【背景】碳汇是指从大气中消除二氧化碳的过程、活动或机制,我国最先提出碳汇渔业概念。【方法】捕捞鱼类的碳均来自天然饵料,故以其平均碳含量估算碳移出量。而养殖鱼类中,一般假定不考虑施肥养鱼的碳输入;鲢和鳙是滤食性鱼类,主要摄食浮游生物,鳜属鱼类以其他种鱼类为食物,而这些鱼类主要摄食天然饵料,故可以认为其碳均来自天然饵料。此外,假设草鱼、鲫和鲤等产量的20%来自天然饵料,而河蟹产量的50%来自天然饵料。基于渔业统计年鉴(2011—2015年),估算了我国近5年来淡水渔业碳汇强度。【结果】2010—2014年,全国淡水养殖碳移出量逐年稳步增长,分别为136.2万、140.5万、146.0万、153.0万和164.5万t,平均每年的碳移出量为148.0万t。2010—2014年全国淡水捕捞碳移出量分别为29.3万、28.7万、29.6万、29.7万和29.6万t,平均每年的碳移出量为29.4万t。【结论与意义】在自然资源日益减少的情况下,淡水养殖渔业碳汇的发展必然会成为淡水渔业经济发展的主体。     

No neonates without adults

With the potential to process the world's agricultural and food waste, provide sustainable fodder for livestock, aquaculture, and pet animals, as well as act as a source of novel biomolecules, the black soldier fly, Hermetia illucens, has been launched into the leading position within the insects as feed industry. Fulfilment of these goals, however, requires mass-rearing facilities to have a steady supply of neonate larvae, which in-turn requires an efficient mating process to yield fertile eggs; yet, little is known about adult reproductive behavior, nor what physiological factors lead to its emergence. Moreover, fertile egg production tends to be highly variable in colony. Therefore, this review brings together what is currently known of the organismal biology of H. illucens, compiling information on adult morphology, physiology, biogeography, genomics, and behavioral ecology. As a holistic synthesis, it highlights several directions of interest for research to follow.     

Livestock production: recent trends, future prospects

The livestock sector globally is highly dynamic. In developing countries, it is evolving in response to rapidly increasing demand for livestock products. In developed countries, demand for livestock products is stagnating, while many production systems are increasing their efficiency and environmental sustainability. Historical changes in the demand for livestock products have been largely driven by human population growth, income growth and urbanization and the production response in different livestock systems has been associated with science and technology as well as increases in animal numbers. In the future, production will increasingly be affected by competition for natural resources, particularly land and water, competition between food and feed and by the need to operate in a carbon-constrained economy. Developments in breeding, nutrition and animal health will continue to contribute to increasing potential production and further efficiency and genetic gains. Livestock production is likely to be increasingly affected by carbon constraints and environmental and animal welfare legislation. Demand for livestock products in the future could be heavily moderated by socio-economic factors such as human health concerns and changing socio-cultural values. There is considerable uncertainty as to how these factors will play out in different regions of the world in the coming decades.     

Strong population structure but no equilibrium yet: Genetic connectivity and phylogeography in the kelp Saccharina latissima (Laminariales,Phaeophyta)

Kelp aquaculture is globally developing steadily as human food source, along with other applications. One of the newer crop species is Saccharina latissima, a northern hemisphere kelp inhabiting temperate to arctic rocky shores. To protect and document its natural genetic variation at the onset of this novel aquaculture, as well as increase knowledge on its taxonomy and phylogeography, we collected new genetic data, both nuclear and mitochondrial, and combined it with previous knowledge to estimate genetic connectivity and infer colonization history. Isolation‐with‐migration coalescent analyses demonstrate that gene flow among the sampled locations is virtually nonexistent. An updated scenario for the origin and colonization history of S. latissima is developed as follows: We propose that the species (or species complex) originated in the northwest Pacific, crossed to the northeast Pacific in the Miocene, and then crossed the Bering Strait after its opening ~5.5 Ma into the Arctic and northeast Atlantic. It subsequently crossed the Atlantic from east to west. During the Pleistocene, it was compressed in the south with evidence for northern refugia in Europe. Postglacial recolonization led to secondary contact in the Canadian Arctic. Saccharina cichorioides is shown to probably belong to the S. latissima species complex and to derive from ancestral populations in the Asian North Pacific. Our novel approach of comparing inferred gene flow based on coalescent analysis versus Wright's island model suggests that equilibrium levels of differentiation have not yet been reached in Europe and, hence, that genetic differentiation is expected to increase further if populations are left undisturbed.     

Using systems thinking and open innovation to strengthen aquaculture policy for the United Nations Sustainable Development Goals

In a world of 9 billion people and a widening income gap between the rich and poor, it is time to rethink how aquaculture can strengthen its contribution to the second UN Sustainable Development Goal (SDG) of zero hunger in our generation. The disparity in the level of sustainable aquaculture development at present, between and within countries, especially regarding human access to farmed aquatic food remains highly variable across the globe. This paper offers a fresh look at the opportunities from using systems thinking and new open innovation measuring tools to grow sustainable aquaculture. Political will in many nations is the main constraint to aquaculture in realising its potential as an: accessible source of micronutrients and nutritious protein; aid to meeting conservation goals; economic prosperity generator where benefits extend to locals and provider of indirect social benefits such as access to education and well-being, among others. Resources to enable strong partnerships (SDG 17) between academia, civic society, government and industry should be prioritised by governments to build a sustainable aquatic food system, accessible to all, forever.     

Effect of length of time before incorporation on survival of pathogenic bacteria present in livestock wastes applied to agricultural soil

In response to reports that the contamination of food can occur during the on-farm primary phase of food production, we report data that describes a possible cost-effective intervention measure. The effect of time before soil incorporation of livestock wastes spread to land on the rate of decline of zoonotic agents present in the waste was investigated. Fresh livestock wastes were inoculated with laboratory-cultured Salmonella, Listeria, and Campylobacter spp. and Escherichia coli O157 before they were spread onto soil. Incorporation of the spread wastes was either immediate, delayed for 1 week, or did not occur at all. Bacterial decline was monitored over time and found to be significantly more rapid for all waste types when they were left on the soil surface. There were no significant differences in initial bacterial decline rates when wastes were spread in summer or winter. Our results indicate that not incorporating contaminated livestock wastes into soil is a potential intervention measure that may help to limit the spread of zoonotic agents further up the food chain. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to current advice for livestock waste disposal.     

水产养殖饲用微生态制剂研究进展

微生态制剂作为新型饲料添加剂,能够有效调节水产动物营养保健和微生态平衡,减少抗生素使用,是理想的抗生素替代品,对保障高效种养殖、食品安全及环境可持续发展意义重大。我国饲用微生态制剂应用起步较晚且发展较慢,仍面临着难点和挑战。本文介绍了微生态制剂及饲用益生菌在鱼、虾及海参养殖中的应用,基于优良益生菌选育、培养条件优化及混合菌株发酵与制剂应用等生物技术研究现状,总结了近年来水产养殖饲用微生态制剂的研究进展,并对未来微生态制剂研究重点和发展前景进行了展望。     

Effect of Length of Time before Incorporation on Survival of Pathogenic Bacteria Present in Livestock Wastes Applied to Agricultural Soil

In response to reports that the contamination of food can occur during the on-farm primary phase of food production, we report data that describes a possible cost-effective intervention measure. The effect of time before soil incorporation of livestock wastes spread to land on the rate of decline of zoonotic agents present in the waste was investigated. Fresh livestock wastes were inoculated with laboratory-cultured Salmonella, Listeria, and Campylobacter spp. and Escherichia coli O157 before they were spead onto soil. Incorporation of the spread wastes was either immediate, delayed for 1 week, or did not occur at all. Bacterial decline was monitored over time and found to be significantly more rapid for all waste types when they were left on the soil surface. There were no significant differences in initial bacterial decline rates when wastes were spread in summer or winter. Our results indicate that not incorporating contaminated livestock wastes into soil is a potential intervention measure that may help to limit the spread of zoonotic agents further up the food chain. The implications of these findings are discussed in relation to current advice for livestock waste disposal.     

The greenhouse gas abatement potential of productivity improving measures applied to cattle systems in a developing region

Developing countries are experiencing an increase in total demand for livestock commodities, as populations and per capita demands increase. Increased production is therefore required to meet this demand and maintain food security. Production increases will lead to proportionate increases in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions unless offset by reductions in the emissions intensity (Ei) (i.e. the amount of GHG emitted per kg of commodity produced) of livestock production. It is therefore important to identify measures that can increase production whilst reducing Ei cost-effectively. This paper seeks to do this for smallholder agro-pastoral cattle systems in Senegal; ranging from low input to semi-intensified, they are representative of a large proportion of the national cattle production. Specifically, it identifies a shortlist of mitigation measures with potential for application to the various herd systems and estimates their GHG emissions abatement potential (using the Global Livestock Environmental Assessment Model) and cost-effectiveness. Limitations and future requirements are identified and discussed. This paper demonstrates that the Ei of meat and milk from livestock systems in a developing region can be reduced through measures that would also benefit food security, many of which are likely to be cost-beneficial. The ability to make such quantification can assist future sustainable development efforts.     

Offshore aquaculture: Spatial planning principles for sustainable development

Marine aquaculture is expanding into deeper offshore environments in response to growing consumer demand for seafood, improved technology, and limited potential to increase wild fisheries catches. Sustainable development of aquaculture will require quantification and minimization of its impacts on other ocean‐based activities and the environment through scientifically informed spatial planning. However, the scientific literature currently provides limited direct guidance for such planning. Here, we employ an ecological lens and synthesize a broad multidisciplinary literature to provide insight into the interactions between offshore aquaculture and the surrounding environment across a spectrum of spatial scales. While important information gaps remain, we find that there is sufficient research for informed decisions about the effects of aquaculture siting to achieve a sustainable offshore aquaculture industry that complements other uses of the marine environment.     

Ecological theory as a foundation to control pathogenic invasion in aquaculture

Detrimental host–pathogen interactions are a normal phenomenon in aquaculture animal production, and have been counteracted by prophylactic use of antibiotics. Especially, the youngest life stages of cultivated aquatic animals are susceptible to pathogen invasion, resulting in disease and mortality. To establish a more sustainable aquatic food production, there is a need for new microbial management strategies that focus on ‘join them'' and not the traditional ‘beat them'' approaches. We argue that ecological theory could serve as a foundation for developing sustainable microbial management methods that prevent pathogenic disease in larviculture. Management of the water microbiota in aquaculture systems according to ecological selection principles has been shown to decrease opportunistic pathogen pressure and to result in an improved performance of the cultured animals. We hypothesize that manipulation of the biodiversity of the gut microbiota can increase the host''s resistance against pathogenic invasion and infection. However, substantial barriers need to be overcome before active management of the intestinal microbiota can effectively be applied in larviculture.     

Managing marine mollusc diseases in the context of regional and international commerce: policy issues and emerging concerns

Marine mollusc production contributes to food and economic security worldwide and provides valuable ecological services, yet diseases threaten these industries and wild populations. Although the infrastructure for mollusc aquaculture health management is well characterized, its foundations are not without flaws. Use of notifiable pathogen lists can leave blind spots with regard to detection of unlisted and emerging pathogens. Increased reliance on molecular tools has come without similar attention to diagnostic validation, raising questions about assay performance, and has been accompanied by a reduced emphasis on microscopic diagnostic expertise that could weaken pathogen detection capabilities. Persistent questions concerning pathogen biology and ecology promote regulatory paralysis that impedes trade and which could weaken biosecurity by driving commerce to surreptitious channels. Solutions that might be pursued to improve shellfish aquaculture health management include the establishment of more broad-based surveillance programmes, wider training and use of general methods like histopathology to ensure alertness to emerging diseases, an increased focus on assay assessment and validation as fundamental to assay development, investment in basic research, and application of risk analyses to improve regulation. A continual sharpening of diagnostic tools and approaches and deepening of scientific knowledge is necessary to manage diseases and promote sustainable molluscan shellfish industries.     

The relationship of bioenergetics and the environment to the field growth of cultured bivalves

The field culture of bivalve molluscs is dependent on the production and supply of phytoplankton and other food sources, its consumption by these suspension feeders, and its transformation into bivalve tissue. An understanding of the processes by which food is captured and utilized is fundamental to prediction of bivalve growth and management of shellfish aquaculture. The following perspective considers the role of food quality and quantity in the ingestion and absorption of food particles, as well as the influence of temperature, water circulation and other environmental variables on bivalve energy budgets and growth rate. A particular focus is the role of simulation modelling in quantifying the influence of these variables on scope for growth. Seston depletion is a major influence on cultured animals such that bivalves are limited by both food quality and quantity. Seston depletion can be managed by taking advantage of particle maxima (e.g. resuspension), matching culture species to turbidity gradients, and arranging hanging culture to take advantage of seston renewal in oblique flow. Food limitation interacts with temperature in cold temperate areas where high primary production occurs at low temperatures. Model simulations of mussel growth demonstrate the importance of temperature acclimation of filtration and its relationship to the timing and magnitude of the spring bloom. In addition to the energetics of individual animals, energy flow through culture ecosystems is considered in terms of bivalve processing of organic matter and competition with Zooplankton and fish. Because bioenergetics is at the root of all of these issues, simulation modelling of scope for growth and related components of the ecosystem is a vital tool in prediction and management of commercial bivalve aquaculture.     

Ecological, environmental and socioeconomic aspects of the Lake Victoria's introduced Nile perch fishery in relation to the native fisheries and the species culture potential: lessons to learn

Inland fishery ecosystems in Africa are characterized by patterns of overexploitation, environmental degradation and exotic species introductions. Ecological complexity and diversity of aquatic habitats dictate that fishes in general are not evenly distributed in a water body. However, fisheries management regimes tend to ignore this basic principle, assume generalized conditions in a water body, and focus more on ‘desired’ objectives such as maximizing catch. The result is to disregard fish habitat boundaries and anthropogenic influences from the catchment that influence fish production. Overexploitation and environmental degradation disrupt sustainable socioeconomic benefits from the fisheries, create uncertainty among investors, but leave some managers calling for more information with the expectation that the fisheries will recover with time. Open access to the fisheries and full control of fishing effort remain challenges for managers. Exotic species introductions and fish farming can increase production, but such interventions require firm commitment to sound ecological principles and strict enforcement of recommended conservation and co‐management measures in capture fisheries. The general tendency to downplay fishing effort issues, other ecosystem values and functions or rely on temperate fisheries models until a new cycle of overexploitation emerges, characterizes many management patterns in inland fisheries. Aquaculture is not an option to challenges in capture fisheries management. Aquaculture should be developed to increase fish production but even this practice may have negative environmental impacts depending on practice and scale. Decades of information on Lake Victoria fisheries trends and aquaculture development did not stop the collapse of native fisheries. The successfully introduced Nile perch (Lates niloticus) has shown signs of overexploitation and aquaculture has again been considered as the option. By reviewing significant trends associated with Nile perch and its feasibility in aquaculture this paper uses Lake Victoria to illustrate ‘special interest management’ targeting selected species of fish rather than the fisheries.     

Down under the southeastern Pacific: marine non-indigenous species in Chile

This article presents the first compilation of marine non-indigenous species (NIS) of algae and macro-invertebrates invading Chilean waters. A total of 32 cosmopolitan and non-cosmopolitan species are reported. Among them there are six species considered as extending their southern range of distribution in connection with El Niño events. The article highlights negative and positive impacts caused by marine NIS invasions. Among the first are Codium fragile var. tomentosoide, considered as a pest in Gracilaria chilensis aquaculture facilities in northern Chile, and Ciona intestinalis, a pest in scallop aquaculture installations. Among the second are bio-engineers species, such as the ascidian Pyura praeputialis and the sea grass Heterozostera tasmanica, which have caused an increase in local biodiversity and enhancement of nursery grounds via the creation of new habitats. Further more, invaders such as the algae Mastocarpus papillosus, Porphyra linearis and P. pseudolinearis represent new exploitable resources, extracted by coastal food gatherers along the coast (M. papillosus) or potential species to develop aquaculture. Additional information is presented on the anemone Anemonia alicemartinae, which appears to be a native species (?), having shown in the past 40–50 years, a geographical southward range extension of approximately 1900 km. The number of NIS reported for Chile is compared with those published for the southwestern Atlantic, South Africa, North America (Atlantic and Pacific coasts) and New Zealand. It is suggested that probably the low number of Chilean NIS is due to the fact that the Chilean coasts are environmentally less stressed than other coasts in the world, due to the scarcity of estuaries, gulfs, enclosed bays, lagoons and low human populations. These kinds of sheltered areas have been suggested as centers for bio-invasions, due to the high rate of human-mediated transfer and increase of pollutants. Furthermore, none of NIS reported from Chile show a fast geographical expansion rate (exception of A. alicemartinae), nor invading strategies such as those described for marine NIS in other latitudes, where notorious ecological unbalances following invasions have been observed. An alternative hypothesis is that the low number of marine NIS invading Chile is underestimated, since the modern list of species generated through specific taxonomically intensive port and harbor surveys is still lacking. Fifteen species (five invertebrate and 10 fish) have been deliberately imported to Chile for aquaculture. The invertebrates appear to be controlled within aquaculture facilities and have not established naturalized populations or caused direct ecological impacts on local communities. On the contrary, several millions of salmoniforms (and rainbow trout) have escaped from farming facilities in southern Chile and established naturalized populations. Studies on ecological impacts are lacking. These escapees are also playing a role in the enhancement of artisanal and sport fishery activities.