Growth rhythms at different stages of shoot morphogenesis in woody plants

Research data on the rhythms of shoot growth in woody plants obtained in the second half of the 20th century are reviewed. Analysis of these data demonstrated different regulation of shoot growth processes at three stages of its development: (1) initiation of shoot primordia, (2) primordia development into phyllome primordia, and (3) visible shoot growth. The growth rhythm after the first stage was realized at the level of apical shoot meristem; at the second stage, at the individual shoot level; and at the third stage, at the whole plant level.     

Growth rhythms at different stages of shoot morphogenesis in woody plants

Research data on the rhythms of shoot growth in woody plants obtained in the second half of the 20th century are reviewed. Analysis of these data demonstrated different regulation of shoot growth processes at three stages of its development: (1) initiation of shoot primordia, (2) primordia development into phyllome primordia, and (3) visible shoot growth. The growth rhythm after the first stage was realized at the level of apical shoot meristem; at the second stage, at the individual shoot level; and at the third stage, at the whole plant level.     

Development of maize plants from cultured shoot apices

Excised shoot apices of maize (Zea mays L.), comprising the apical meristem and one or two leaf primordia, have been cultured and can form rooted plantlets. The plantlets, derived from meristems that had previously formed 7–10 nodes, develop into mature, morphologically normal plants with as many nodes as seed-grown plants. These culture-derived plants exhibited the normal pattern of development, with regard to the progression of leaf lengths along the plant and position of axillary buds and aar shoots. Isolation of the meristem from previously formed nodes reinitiates the pattern and number of nodes formed in the new plant. Thus, cells of the meristem of a maize plant at the seedling stage are not determined to form a limited number of nodes.     

Histochemical IAA-oxidase localization in the shoot of wheat

A histochemical method for the determination of IAA-oxidase has been used in sections of various aerial parts of winter wheat plants. High IAA-oxidase activity was localized in the cell walls of sclerenchyma near the periphery of the stem, in the vascular bundle sheath of sclerenchyma and in xylem, both in the stem and in the leaf. The cell wall—bound IAA-oxidase activity therefore appeared in lignifying tissues. The staining was very weak or absent in the cell walls of parenchyma tissues and phloem. The positive reaction of the cytosol at the bulbous ends of guard cells and in the leaf primordia is presumed to be due to cytosolic IAA-oxidase. These results are discussed in relation to peroxidase localization and to our previousin vitro studies.     

Recovery of fertile plants from isolated,cultured maize shoot apices

Maize shoot apices (1 to 2mm size) from two sources were used to recover normal plantlets. The first explant source included shoot apices from the embryonic axis of immature embryos, 12–14 days post pollination in the glasshouse (spring) or 15–20 days post pollination in the summer nursery. In most explants, the shoot apical meristem was surrounded by a coleoptile primordium which was removed before culture. The second explant source included shoot apices from the plumules of 72 h imbibed mature kernels. The coleoptile and all other leaf layers (leaf-1 to leaf-3 or 4) of the plumule were removed before culture to expose the apical meristem. Among the genotypes studied, a recovery of 43% (Mo17) to 100% (Oh43) of plantlets was achieved from shoot apices from immature embryo plumules cultured in MS medium. Recovery of 80% of Oh43 plantlets in MS medium and 40% of A188 plantlets from apices of plumules of imbibed (72 h) seeds in MS medium containing 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid was recorded. The plantlets derived from both explant sources grew normally and produced viable seeds upon pollination.     

Localization of starch in shoot apices of vegetative and photoperiodically induced plants ofChenopodium rubrutn

Starch was determined by means of IKI reaction in shoot apices ofChenopodium rubrum plants induced to flowering by two short days and in non-induced plants. Small starch grains were already observed in the meristematic cells at an age of four days after sowing. Larger grains were found in the subapical region of the apex. Heterogeneity increases during further growth of the plants in induced, as well as in non-induced vegetative plants. Starch disappears from the cells potentially giving rise to axillary buds, while the number and size of starch grains increase in cells from which leaf primordia will be formed. This metabolic specifity of leaf and bud primordia is preserved during morphological differentiation and applies to vegetative, as well as to prefloral apices of photoperiodically induced plants. The amount of starch in the different regions of the apex is linked rather with organogenesis than with the quantitative growth in the apex.     

Selective histochemical localization of alcohol dehydrogenase in bud primordia cells of wheat shoot apices

During the histochemical investigation of dehydrogenases in the developing shoot apex of wheat plants it was found that the morphologically similar cells of the peripheral meristem may be differentiated according to the differential activity of alcohol dehydrogenase. While the enzyme was not present or exhibited a very small activity only in the tissue of leaf primordia it was highly active in the cells of bud primordia irrespective of the degree of their development and their differential physiological determination.     

Intergenotypic competition and shoot production in wheat plants

In field experiments, the competition among plants of two distinct wheat genotypes in binary mixtures, and among three genotypes being grown in adjacent rows was investigated. The competition greatly affected the over-ground dry weight, weight of stem and grain per plant. This effect was undercompensatory, the depression in poor competitor was higher than the enhancement of strong competitor for all these characteristics. From final components of grain yield per plant, the number of fertile stems and number of grains per ear were more affected than weight per grain. More expressively than weight of grain on the main-stem ear, the weight of grain per average secondary ear-bearing stem was affected by competition in binary mixture. The enhancement in standard height—a strongly competitive genotype— reached in binary mixture about 10% for this last characteristic in comparison with the value from the pure stand. Some morphological characteristics of plants being in relation with competition for grain yield per plant are discussed in these experiments.     

Analysis of surface growth in shoot apices

A salient feature of shoot meristem growth is the maintenance of distinct anatomical and morphological features despite a continuous flux of cells. To investigate how meristem organization is self-perpetuated, we developed a protocol for the analysis of meristem growth in 3-D. Our protocol uses a non-destructive replica method to follow the pattern of cell expansion and cell divisions on the meristem surface over several days. Algorithms to reconstruct the meristem surface and compute its curvature and rate of extension were implemented. We applied this approach to the shoot apical meristem of Anagallis arvensis and showed that a subcellular resolution of extension rates can be achieved. This is the first detailed quantitative analysis of meristem geometry and surface expansion in 3-D. This new approach will be useful to connect cellular activities such as cell expansion, cell division, and differential gene expression with overall meristem morphogenesis.     

Correlation between the output and composition of essential oil and the level of salicylic acid in mint plants at different ontogenetic stages

Dynamic changes in the content of acetylsalicylic acid and the output and qualitative composition of essential oil have been studied in mint plants (Mentha spicata L. and cultivar Medichka) during their ontogenesis with allowance for changes in weather conditions. Ontogenetic changes in the level of acetylsalicylic acid in leaf tissues are found to be similar in both cv. Medichka and M. spicata. In the case of cv. Medichka, this change is connected with the dynamics of the production and the qualitative composition of essential oil; in the case of M. spicata, this connection is less expressed. The role of acetylsalicylic acid and essential oil in plant adaptation to the environment is discussed.     

Total hemicelluloses from wheat at different stages of growth

The changes in total hemicellulose composition of leaf and stem tissues of field-grown wheat plants have been examined. In each plant tissue the percentage of xylose in the total hemicellulose increases with increasing plant maturity, that of galactose varies little and those of L-arabinose, D-glucose, and uronic acid decrease. There is a markedly higher proportion of D-glucopyranuronosyl than of 4-O-methyl-D-glucopyranuronosyl residues in leaf and stem tissues at all stages of maturity. The ratio of β(1 → 3) to β(1 → 4) linkages in the β-glucans, and the DP of these β-glucans decrease concommitantly with tissue maturity.     

Evolution of stickleback feeding behaviour: genetics of population divergence at different ontogenetic stages

The evolutionary significance of individual consistency in a given behaviour – called animal personality – has been subject to a lot of recent research. However, the genetic underpinnings of population divergence in mean personality have rarely been studied, especially across different ontogenetic stages. Previous work has shown that marine vs. pond populations of nine‐spined sticklebacks (Pungitius pungitius) have undergone adaptive divergence in a series of fitness‐related traits, including behaviour. One particular behavioural trait important in this system is feeding activity: giant pond sticklebacks are more active feeders than their normal sized marine conspecifics. In a common garden experiment, we raised individuals from pure and hybrid F₁‐generation crosses of a highly divergent marine – pond population pair to see if (i) feeding activity and/or its ontogenetic change was consistent between individuals, and if (ii) population divergence at different ontogenetic stages could be explained by additive genetic, nonadditive genetic or maternal effects. We found that feeding activity decreased with age, but that these changes were consistently different among both individuals and crosses. The among cross patterns were consistent with a nonadditive genetic scenario: in the early period pond sticklebacks expressed dominance for high feeding activity, while in the late period marine sticklebacks expressed dominance for low feeding activity. We conclude that nine‐spined sticklebacks exhibit different feeding personalities, and that the population divergence in feeding personality is explainable by age‐dependent expression of genetic dominance.     

Diffusible Cytokinins in shoot apices of Dahlia variabilis

Cytokinin activity (soyabean callus assay) has been determinedin excised apical buds of Dahlia variabilis before and aftera period of 3 h with cut surfaces in contact with agar gel,in the agar gel and in xylem exudates from cut shoot stumps. Buds before diffusion gave three peaks of activity in the butanolfraction, one in the aqueous fraction, following paper chromatography.Two of the former diffused into agar gel, the third (in whichmost activity was recorded) decreased in level during the 3-hperiod but was absent from the agar diffusate. The water-solublecytokinin remained at its original level and was absent fromthe agar diffusate. The three peaks of activity in the butanolfraction were also present in xylem exudates. Ether and ethylacetate fractions contained callus-growth inhibitors which diffusedinto agar gel.     

In vitro plant regeneration from callus of shoot apices in apple shoot culture

A new reliable protocol for the induction of adventitious shoot formation and plant regeneration from apple callus has been developed. High regeneration frequency was obtained with this method in four different genotypes (Jork9, M26, Gala and McIntosh) and callus maintained regeneration ability for several months. The procedure consists of inducing vegetative shoot apices, excised from in vitro shoots, for 20 days in darkness on an MS medium without glycine, supplied with 17.8 μM BA, 2.7 μM NAA and 250 mg l⁻¹ cefotaxime. The explants are then transferred to a fresh auxin-free medium and given light. Histological studies revealed that all the regenerated shoots originated from callus. Regenerated shoots were multiplied, rooted and successfully established in soil. Received: 2 April 1999 / Revision received: 10 November 1999 / Accepted: 15 November 1999     

Genetic dissection of chlorophyll content at different growth stages in common wheat

Quantitative trait loci (QTLs) for chlorophyll content were studied using a doubled haploid (DH) population with 168 progeny lines, derived from a cross between two elite Chinese wheat cultivars Huapei 3 × Yumai 57. Chlorophyll content was evaluated at the maximum tillering stage (MS), the heading stage (HS), and the grain filling stage (GS), at three different environments in 2005 and 2006 cropping seasons. QTL analyses were performed using a mixed linear model approach. A total of 17 additive QTLs and nine pairs of epistatic QTLs were detected. Ten of 17 additive QTLs for chlorophyll content were persistently expressed at more than two growth stages, which suggest developmentally regulated loci controlling genetics for chlorophyll content in different growth stages in wheat. One novel major QTL for chlorophyll content was closely linked with the PCR marker Xwmc215 and was persistently expressed at three growth stages.     

Autoradiography of tritiated uridine in shoot apices ofChenopodium rubrum

The incorporation of uridine-5-³H into shoot apices ofChenopodium rubrum, plants was studied using autoradiography. The evaluation of the rate of incorporation into the nucleolus and the extranucleolar part of the nucleus as a function of the total radioactivity in the apex yields quantitative data on the distribution of labeling in these parts of the nucleus. Incubation of intact germinating plants in uridine-³H makes it possible to carry out chase experiments. Curves of uridine incorporation into the nucleolus and the extranucleolar part of the nucleus were obtained which demonstrated a non-linear course of incorporation. When incubating with uridine from 30 to 120 min the nucleolar/extranucleolar ratio of labelling was found to increase from 2 to 3. In chase experiments this ratio changed within three days from 3 to 1. Interpretation of these results in view of the function of RNA localized in different parts of the nucleus is discussed.