Embryology and fruit development in four species of Pistacia L. (Anacardiaceae)

Pistacia atlantica, P. palaestina, P. lentiscus and P. saportae , were found to have great similarity in their embryology and fruit development. The anatropous, pendulous and crassinucellate ovule was initially unitegmic; later, the integument split close to the micropyle, forming a partial second integument. After anthesis there was a development of a hypostase and an obturator. The development of the Polygonum-type embryo sac followed division of a megaspore mother cell, giving a tetrad or triad of megaspores. The functional megaspore was the chalazal one. The ovary developed into a mature pericarp after anthesis, even when pollination was prevented, and before the zygote divided. Therefore, the fruit can be parthenocarpic. The ovule started to grow after initiation of embryo development until it filled the cavity within the pericarp. The zygotes were dormant for 4–18 weeks after pollination. In P. saportae reproduction became arrested during the development of the embryo sac; only very few abnormal embryos were found. No fixed pattern of embryo development could be discerned. The endosperm was initially nuclear, becoming cellular when the embryo started to develop. The seed coat was derived from the integument and the remnants of the nucellus.     

Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae)Chicha production in the Central Andes

The authors located and experimentally reproduced an alcoholic beverage using Schinus molle L. drupes to explain the presence of large quantities of S. molle seeds in archaeological contexts associated with the Middle Horizon (550–1000 C.E.) site of Cerro Baúl, Moquegua, Perú. They discuss the production ofchicha de molle in the context of the archaeological site, the ecology of the plant, and the ethnobotany associated withS. molle in the Andes. Overall, S. molle was and is used today in a variety of ways regionally, and through both ethnobotanical and archaeological fieldwork, they establish a long-standing tradition of human-plant interactions withS. molle.     

Domestication and the distribution of genetic variation in wild and cultivated populations of the Mesoamerican fruit tree Spondias purpurea L. (Anacardiaceae)

Domestication occurs as humans select and cultivate wild plants in agricultural habitats. The amount and structure of variation in contemporary cultivated populations has been shaped, in part, by how genetic material was transferred from one cultivated generation to the next. In some cultivated tree species, domestication involved a shift from sexually reproducing wild populations to vegetatively propagated cultivated populations; however, little is known about how domestication has impacted variation in these species. We employed AFLP data to explore the amount, structure, and distribution of variation in clonally propagated domesticated populations and sexually reproducing wild populations of the Neotropical fruit tree, Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae). Cultivated populations from three different agricultural habitats were included: living fences, backyards, and orchards. AFLP data were analysed using measures of genetic diversity (% polymorphic loci, Shannon's diversity index, Nei's gene diversity, panmictic heterozygosity), population structure (F(ST) analogues), and principal components analyses. Levels of genetic variation in cultivated S. purpurea populations are significantly less than variation found in wild populations, although the amount of diversity varies in different agricultural habitats. Cultivated populations have a greater proportion of their genetic variability distributed among populations than wild populations. The genetic structure of backyard populations resembles that of wild populations, but living fence and orchard populations have 1/3 more variability distributed among populations, most likely a reflection of relative levels of vegetative reproduction. Finally, these results suggest that S. purpurea was domesticated in two distinct regions within Mesoamerica.     

Female biased sex ratios in Pistacia lentiscus L. (Anacardiaceae)

Sex ratios of populations of the dioecious shrub Pistacia lentiscus L. (Anacardiaceae) were studied. Several hypotheses concerning biased sex ratios were tested. The expected pattern of male preponderance in stressful habitats was not found. The populations located in a microclimatic gradient, such as a slope, did not display a male-biased sex ratio on the stressful middle slope. The populations located in a climatic gradient did not display a male-biased sex ratio in the more xeric habitats. Testing the hypothesis of female preponderance when pollen grain competition exists, we found a significant correlation in the direction opposite to that predicted by this hypothesis. Low density of individuals (an estimate of pollen density) correlates with a high preponderance of females but the sex ratio approaches 1:1 when density increases. This correlation should have an upper threshold in 1:1 because male-biased sex ratios have never been found.     

Variation in the essential oils composition in Brazilian populations of Schinus molle L. (Anacardiaceae)

Schinus molle L. is popularly known as “peppertree” and presents high essential oil contents with a pleasant spicy scent. Its fruits are used in beverages or dried and ground as a substitute for pepper. Air-dried samples of 11 Brazilian populations of S. molle were extracted using steam distillation and analyzed using GC and GC–MS. A total of 22 volatile compounds were detected and identified. Four groups were formed by the Average Linkage cluster analysis. The first group was characterized by the compound sabinene; the second, which was the largest group, was characterized by the presence of α- and β-pinene; the third group comprised the samples corresponding to the São Borja population and was characterized by the high contents of α-cadinol; and the fourth group was characterized by the high concentrations of myrcene.     

Comparative morphology and physiology of fruit and seed development in the two shrubs Rhus aromatica and R. glabra (Anacardiaceae)

Morphology and physiology of fruit and seed development were compared in Rhus aromatica and R. glabra (Anacardiaceae), both of which produce drupes with water-impermeable endocarps. Phenology of flowering/fruiting of the two species at the study site was separated by ∼2 mo. However, they were similar in the timetable and pattern of fruit and seed development; it took ∼2 mo and ∼1.5 mo for flowers of Rhus aromatica and R. glabra, respectively, to develop into mature drupes. The single sigmoidal growth curve for increase in fruit size and in dry mass of these two species differs from the double-sigmoidal one described for typical commercial drupes such as peach and plum. Order of attainment of maximum size was fruit and endocarp (same time), seed coat, and embryo. By the time fruits turned red, the embryo had reached full size and become germinable; moisture content of seed plus endocarp had decreased to ∼40%. The endocarp was the last fruit component to reach physiological maturity, which coincided with development of its impermeability and a seed plus endocarp moisture content of <10%. At this time, ∼50, 37, and 13% of the dry mass of the drupe was allocated to the exocarp plus mesocarp unit, endocarp, and seed, respectively. The time course of fruit and seed development in these two species is much faster than that reported for other Anacardiaceae, including Rhus lancea, Protorhus, and Pistacia.     

Development and characterization of eight polymorphic microsatellite loci from Pistacia lentiscus L. (Anacardiaceae)

We have developed a set of eight polymorphic nuclear microsatellite markers for the Mediterranean shrub Pistacia lentiscus by means of an enriched library method. Characterization for the eight loci was carried out on 42 individuals from two populations sampled in southern Spain. The overall number of alleles detected was 59, ranging from three to 13 per locus. Expected heterozygosity per locus and population ranged from 0.139 to 0.895. Two loci albeit only in one population (Seville) departed significantly from Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium expectations and no linkage disequilibrium between pairs of loci was detected. These markers will be used in studies of gene flow across a fragmented landscape.     

Pollen vigour and composition in relation to andromonoecy in cashew (Anacardium occidentale L.: Anacardiaceae)

Summary Cashew trees produce four types of pollen from the large and small stamens of the hermaphrodite and male flower (HL, HS, ML, MS). Comparative studies were made of the grain number, structure, viability, vigour, and sugar and amino acid composition of the four pollen types. Anther and pollen grain numbers and dimensions of the four pollen types were similar, as were pollen structure and staining characteristics. The fluorescein diacetate test showed that the HL pollen had the highest percent fluorescence, and viability of all pollen types had declined by 48 h after anthesis. Following controlled hand pollination, the ML pollen had the highest capacity to germinate on the stigma and penetrate the ovule, followed by the MS, HL, and HS pollens. Glucose and fructose and 19 free amino acids were present in all pollen types, with higher levels in the hermaphrodite than in the male flower pollen. The results indicate that the pollen of the male flower is specialised for pollination and fruit set, whereas that of the hermaphrodite flower may be specialised for insect attraction.     

Weak interactions between avian and insect frugivores: the case of Pistacia terebinthus L. (Anacardiaceae)

Vertebrate frugivores often feed on fruits upon or within which insects also feed, yet little information exists on the potential magnitude of interactions between these consumers. The Mediterranean shrub Pistacia terebinthus, the birds that consume its fruits, and the wasps that feed upon its seeds are examined in this study. P. terebinthus produces a highly variable fraction of final-sized red fruits that never become mature (green-colored). Red fruits can be immature, parthenocarpic, aborted, or attacked by wasps, and their pulp is much less nutritious than that of mature fruits. A total of 20 bird species consumed the fruits in the study area. Legitimate dispersers accounted for 39% of the total fruit removal, while pulp eaters and seed predators accounted for the remainder. Birds strongly preferred the mature fruits (only 4% of the fruits consumed were red). The incidence of wasps in the seeds ranged from 0 to 42% of the crop in 1989 and from 0 to 24% in 1990. The influence of avian and insect frugivore guilds on each other appears to be quite low because of the narrow overlap in resource utilization by birds and wasps, and an overall low intensity of wasp seed predation. From an evolutionary perspective, the possible ability of wasps to preclude fruit maturation appears not to be attributable to the present interaction with avian frugivores.     

Effect of Rhus coriaria L. (Anacardiaceae) on superoxide radical scavenging and xanthine oxidase activity

Rhus coriaria L. (Anacardiaceae) is a well-known spice in the Middle-East and grown in the Central and East Anatolia region of Turkey. A methanolic extract (water-soluble part constituents) of R. coriaria, was found to be an uncompetitive inhibitor of xanthine oxidase and scavenger of superoxide radical in vitro with IC50 values of 172.5 microg/mL and 232 microg/mL respectively. Superoxide radicals were generated either by an enzymatic or a non-enzymatic system, and scavenging ability was evaluated by the inhibition of nitroblue tetrazolium reduction. This study provides evidence that a crude extract of R. coriaria exhibits interesting antioxidant properties, expressed either by the capacity to scavenge superoxide radical or to uncompetitively inhibit xanthine oxidase.     

Reevaluation of the sections of Rhus L. subgenus lobadium (Raf.) T. & G. (Anacardiaceae)

Species ofRhus subgen.Lobadium have in the past been grouped into five sections:Pseudosumac, Stypkonia,Pseudoschmaltzia, Rhoeidium andLobadium. Reexamination of the morphological criteria used to delimit the sections, as well as consideration of data from flavonoid chemistry and wood anatomy, suggest that the affinities of this group of taxa are best reflected by recognizing three sections and three subsections. The namesPseudosumac andPseudoschmaltzia are rejected as beingnomina nuda.     

中国黄檀属植物(豆科)一新记录

报道了一种黄檀属植物―南亚黄檀[Dalbergiavolubilis Roxb.(Leguminosae)]在中国的分布新记录。     

Analysis of the fruit surfaces in Bupleurum L. (Umbelliferae) with SEM

20 Bupleurum L. taxa were investigated for micromorphological typology of the fruit surfaces with SEM. Considerably different types of sculpturing at species and subspecies level and similarities between related taxa were observed. A dichotomic key was prepared using the diagnostic surface patterns. Reticulate (sect. Bupleurum), rugose (sect. Aristata Godron subsect. Aristata) and rugulose-colliculate-verrucate (subsect. Juncea Briq.) types of surface structures were distinguished. Micromorphological characteristics may be valuable additional taxonomical criteria for the delimitation of infrageneric groups of species.     

The ancient tropical rainforest tree Symphonia globulifera L. f. (Clusiaceae) was not restricted to postulated Pleistocene refugia in Atlantic Equatorial Africa

Understanding the history of forests and their species'' demographic responses to past disturbances is important for predicting impacts of future environmental changes. Tropical rainforests of the Guineo-Congolian region in Central Africa are believed to have survived the Pleistocene glacial periods in a few major refugia, essentially centred on mountainous regions close to the Atlantic Ocean. We tested this hypothesis by investigating the phylogeographic structure of a widespread, ancient rainforest tree species, Symphonia globulifera L. f. (Clusiaceae), using plastid DNA sequences (chloroplast DNA [cpDNA], psbA-trnH intergenic spacer) and nuclear microsatellites (simple sequence repeats, SSRs). SSRs identified four gene pools located in Benin, West Cameroon, South Cameroon and Gabon, and São Tomé. This structure was also apparent at cpDNA. Approximate Bayesian Computation detected recent bottlenecks approximately dated to the last glacial maximum in Benin, West Cameroon and São Tomé, and an older bottleneck in South Cameroon and Gabon, suggesting a genetic effect of Pleistocene cycles of forest contraction. CpDNA haplotype distribution indicated wide-ranging long-term persistence of S. globulifera both inside and outside of postulated forest refugia. Pollen flow was four times greater than that of seed in South Cameroon and Gabon, which probably enabled rapid population recovery after bottlenecks. Furthermore, our study suggested ecotypic differentiation—coastal or swamp vs terra firme—in S. globulifera. Comparison with other tree phylogeographic studies in Central Africa highlighted the relevance of species-specific responses to environmental change in forest trees.     

Development and structure of the seed-coat of Lannea discolor (Sonder) Engl. (Anacardiaceae)

VON TEICHMAN, I., 1988. The development and structure of the seed-coat of Lannea discolor (Sonder) Engl. (Anacardiaceae). The bitegmic, anatropous ovule contains a group of nucellar cells with slightly thickened and intensively staining cell walls. Besides this hypostase sensu stricto, the nucellus cells in the chalaza become tanniniferous. This tanniniferous chalazal-nucellar tissue is intially plate-like. It is referred to as the hypostase sensu lato. The latter and the chalaza enlarge significantly. The raphe, extensive chalaza and well-developed cup-like hypostase sensu lato play an important role in the development of the seed-coat. The inner, tanniniferous epidermis of the inner integument persists in parts of the mature seed-coat. The outer, distinctly tanniniferous epidermis of the outer integument shows in the mature seed-coat a degree of secondary wall thickening. This undifferentiated type of seed-coat of L. discolor (tribe Spondieae) is remarkably similar to that of Camnosperma minor (tribe Rhoideae), both also showing tendency towards the exotestal type. In the Rhoideae the endotestal, i.e. differentiated type, of seed-coat is also present. The exalbuminous seed of L. discolor represents a derived and advanced type.     

印度黄檀属(豆科)一新异名

在比较研究馆藏标本和原始文献的基础上,确认Dalbergia beddomei Thoth. 在小叶数目和毛被状况、荚果大小等方面的特征变异式样与锈红黄檀D. rubiginosa Roxb. 相同,两者为同种植物,因此予以归并。     

Grapefruit as a host for the West Indian fruit fly (Diptera: Tephritidae)

The most common hosts for the West Indian fruit fly, Anastrepha obliqua (Macquart) (Diptera: Tephritidae) are fruit in the family Anacardiaceae (mango [Mangifera L.] and mombin [Spondias L.] species). However, similar to many of the tropical fruit flies of major economic importance, this species attacks several other families of crop fruit, including Annonaceae (cherimoya, Annona cherimola Mill.), Myrtaceae (guava, Psidium L.), Oxalidaceae (carambola, Averrhoa carambola L.), Passifloraceae (granadilla, Passiflora quadrangularis Mill.), and Sapotaceae [mamey sapote, Pouteria sapota (Jacq.) H. E. Moore & Steam]. In the family Rutaceae the economically important genus Citrus has been reported and until recently considered a host for this fruit fly. In this study, we reviewed the taxonomy of A. obliqua, tested specific chemicals that may inhibit oviposition, compared egg-to-adult survival of A. obliqua on preferred hosts and on grapefruit (Citrus X paradisi Macfad.), and measured fruit tissue-specific developmental rates of A. obliqua and the known citrus breeding Mexican fruit fly, Anastrepha ludens (Loew) (Diptera: Tephritidae), from egg to pupae. Our literature review shows much confusion concerning the taxonomy of this and related Anastrepha species, including synonymies and confusion with other species. The deterrent effect of the highest concentration of flavonoids for oviposition, although significant, was not absolute. Experiments carried out under laboratory conditions showed 15-40 times greater survival of A. ludens (whose preferred hosts include Rutaceae) on grapefruit compared with A. obliqua for both tree attached and harvested fruit. Experiments of survival of developing stages over time showed that the two species oviposit into different tissues in the fruit, and mortality is much higher for the West Indian fruit fly in the flavedo and albedo of the fruit compared with the Mexican fruit fly.     

Phenolic compounds from the leaves and stem bark of Pseudospondias microcarpa (A. Rich.) Engl. (Anacardiaceae)

Phytochemical study of the leaves and the stem bark of Pseudospondias microcarpa (A. Rich.) Engl. afforded eight phenolic compounds: scopoletin (1), ferulic acid (2), isovitexin (3), rhoifolin (4), quercetin 3-O-α-L-rhamnopyranoside (5), justicialoside A (6), granduloside A (7) and pithecellobiumol B (8). The structures of the isolated compounds were elucidated by spectroscopic means including 1D and 2D NMR and MS, and by comparison with previously reported data. This is the first report on the isolation of these compounds from the genus Pseudospondias. The chemotaxonomic significance of the isolated compounds within the family Anacardiaceae is discussed.     

GIS-based characterization of the geographic distributions of wild and cultivated populations of the Mesoamerican fruit tree Spondias purpurea (Anacardiaceae)

Humans are having a profound impact on the geographic distributions of plant populations. In crop species, domestication has been accompanied by the geographic expansion of cultivated populations relative to their wild ancestors. We used a geographical information system (GIS)-based approach to investigate differences in the environmental factors characterizing the geographic distributions of cultivated and wild populations of the Mesoamerican fruit tree Spondias purpurea. Locality data for 86 cultivated and 28 wild S. purpurea populations were used in conjunction with environmental data layers and Maxent, a maximum entropy application for predicting species distributions. Interpredictivity analyses and principal components analysis revealed that the predicted distribution of wild S. purpurea is nested within the cultivated distribution and that the ecological niche (defined by environmental characteristics) of cultivated S. purpurea has expanded relative to that of wild populations. Significant differences between wild and cultivated populations were detected for five environmental variables, corresponding to the expansion of S. purpurea during the domestication process from its native habitat in the Mesoamerican tropical dry forests into less seasonal habitats. These data suggest that humans have altered the range of habitats occupied by cultivated S. purpurea populations relative to their wild progenitors.