Physical growth and development, neurological maturation and behavioral functioning in two Ecuadorian Andean communities in which goiter is endemic. I. Outline of the problem of endemic goiter and cretinism. Physical growth and neurological maturation in the adult population of La Esperanza

Animal experiments indicate that chronic dietary iodine deficiency can have a marked effect on neurological maturation and the consequent behavioral capacities of the individuals so affected. Goiter, enlargement of the thyroid gland, is hyperendemic throughout the Andean region of Ecuador and is associated with an insufficient dietary intake of iodine. In these populations there is also a strikingly high prevalence of gross mental and physical developmental retardation that has been classified under the rubric of “endemic cretinism.” Anthropometric measurements and Bender Gestalt productions were collected from 44 deaf-mute “cretin” and 344 “normal” adult individuals in the parroquia of La Esperanza. The anthropometric data were generally comparable to that of other Ecuadorian Andean populations which have been studied. The deaf-mute “cretin” group showed retardation in physical growth and marked retardation in visual motor maturation compared to the “normal” population. Seventeen percent of the “normal” population showed clear signs of neurological deficit in visual motor perception. The data suggest that in addition to the large number of grossly retarded “cretins” in these populations, many of the “normal” individuals show some degree of neurological deficit, thus forming a continuum from frankly retarded, through moderately and slightly affected, to normal individuals. The socio-cultural adaptations to the presence of a large number of retarded individuals in the community are discussed.     

Disrupted montane forest recovery hinders biodiversity conservation in the tropical Andes

Aim

Andean montane forests are biodiversity hotspots and large carbon stores and they provide numerous ecosystem services. Following land abandonment after centuries of forest clearing for agriculture in the Andes, there is an opportunity for forest recovery. Field-based studies show that forests do not always recover. However, large-scale and long-term knowledge of recovery dynamics of Andean forests remains scarce. This paper analyses tropical montane forest recovery trajectories over a 15-year time frame at the landscape and tropical Andean scale to inform restoration planning.

Methods

We first detect “potential recovery” as areas that have experienced a forest transition between 2000 and 2005. Then, we use Landsat time series analysis of the normalized difference water index (NDWI) to classify four “realized recovery” trajectories (“ongoing”, “arrested”, “disrupted” and “no recovery”) based on a sequential pattern of 5-yearly Z-score anomalies for 2005–2020. We compare these results against an analysis of change in tree cover to validate against other datasets.

Results

Across the tropical Andes, we detected a potential recovery area of 274 km² over the period. Despite increases in tree cover, most areas of the Andes remained in early successional states (10–25% tree cover), and NDWI levelled out after 5–10 years. Of all potential forest recovery areas, 22% showed “ongoing recovery”, 61% showed either “disrupted” or “arrested recovery”, and 17% showed “no recovery”. Our method captured forest recovery dynamics in a Peruvian arrested succession context and in landscape-scale tree-planting efforts in Ecuador.

Main conclusions

Forest recovery across the Andes is mostly disrupted, arrested or unsuccessful, with consequences for biodiversity recovery and provision of ecosystem services. Low-recovery areas identified in this study might be good candidates for active restoration interventions in this UN Decade on Restoration. Future studies could determine restoration strategies and priorities and suggest management strategies at a local planning scale across key regions in the biodiversity hotspot.     

Development of the “Third-Generation” Hybrid Rice in China

Rice is a major cereal crop for China. The development of the ‘‘three-line" hybrid rice system based on cytoplasmic male sterility in the 1970 s(first-generation) and the ‘‘two-line" hybrid rice system based on photoperiod-and thermo-sensitive genic male-sterile lines(second-generation)in the 1980 s has contributed significantly to rice yield increase and food security in China. Here we describe the development and implementation of the ‘‘third-generation" hybrid rice breeding system that is based on a transgenic approach to propagate and utilize stable recessive nuclear male sterile lines, and as such, the male sterile line and hybrid rice produced using such a system is nontransgenic. Such a system should overcome the intrinsic problems of the ‘‘first-generation" and‘‘second-generation" hybrid rice systems and hold great promise to further boost production of hybrid rice and other crops.     

Expressing the maize anthocyanin regulatory gene Lc increased flavonoid content in the seed of white pericarp rice and purple pericarp rice

The colour of red, purple, brown and white occurs in pericarp of rice. Here, the maize anthocyanin regulatory gene Lc under control of the promoter of the rice glutelin gene Gt1 was introduced in the white pericarp rice “Chao2-10” and purple pericarp rice “Qingjiaozidao”. The results demonstrated that some transgenic “Chao2-10” rice pericarps became brown, and the total flavonoid contents in the unpolished rice of the two transgenic rices increased significantly compared with their respective controls. Unpolished rice kernel thickness and weight in the two transgenic rices decreased slightly.     

Sequence polymorphisms in wild,weedy, and cultivated rice suggest seed‐shattering locus sh4 played a minor role in Asian rice domestication

The predominant view regarding Asian rice domestication is that the initial origin of nonshattering involved a single gene of large effect, specifically, the sh4 locus via the evolutionary replacement of a dominant allele for shattering with a recessive allele for reduced shattering. Data have accumulated to challenge this hypothesis. Specifically, a few studies have reported occasional seed‐shattering plants from populations of the wild progenitor of cultivated rice (Oryza rufipogon complex) being homozygous for the putative “nonshattering” sh4 alleles. We tested the sh4 hypothesis for the domestication of cultivated rice by obtaining genotypes and phenotypes for a diverse set of samples of wild, weedy, and cultivated rice accessions. The cultivars were fixed for the putative “nonshattering” allele and nonshattering phenotype, but wild rice accessions are highly polymorphic for the putative “nonshattering” allele (frequency ~26%) with shattering phenotype. All weedy rice accessions are the “nonshattering” genotype at the sh4 locus but with shattering phenotype. These data challenge the widely accepted hypothesis that a single nucleotide mutation (“G”/“T”) of the sh4 locus is the major driving force for rice domestication. Instead, we hypothesize that unidentified shattering loci are responsible for the initial domestication of cultivated rice through reduced seed shattering.     

The use of maize by the New Zealand Maoris

The only European vegetable introductions which have been absorbed by the Maoris as standard items are potatoes, squash and maize. The one use of maize developed by the Maoris which has been considered unique is the process of “rotting” or fermenting in water prior to eating. This process is similar to one employed in the Sierra of Ancash in Peru.     

First record sheds light on the distribution of the cyprinodontiform genus Jenynsia (Günther, 1866) in the High Andean Plateau

This is the first record of the genus Jenynsia in the High Andean Plateau (HAP). It has been found at elevations between 3400 and 3900 m in three endorreheic systems: Salar Antofalla, Antofagasta de la Sierra and El Peñón, northwestern Argentina, South America. This finding increases the number of known HAP fish genera to five. Furthermore, in contrast to the old Andean species-rich genus Orestias, the presence of Jenynsia obscura populations in young high-altitude, non-marine saline wetlands reported here supports a recent dispersal into the HAP.     

Physical growth and development, neurological maturation, and behavioral functioning in two Ecuadorian Andean communities in which goiter is endemic. II. PTC taste sensitivity and neurological maturation

PTC (phenylthiocarbamide) taste sensitivity was correlated with a measure of visual-motor maturation in children six to 15 years of age in two Ecuadorian Andean communities in which goiter (enlargement of the thyroid gland) and cretinism are endemic. The children in one population received injections of iodine in oil IM in 1966 while the children in the other population did not. The correlations between PTC taste sensitivity and visual-motor maturation were significant in both sex groups in the non-iodized population, but not in the iodized population. There was also a significant increase in taste sensitivity with age in the non-iodized, but not the iodized, population. The data support the hypothesis that the sensitive “tasters” of PTC limit their ingestion of naturally occurring goitrogens and are at an adaptive advantage with respect to the less sensitive “tasters” and “non-tasters” in this area in which iodine intake is low and the consumption of food crops containing naturally occurring goitrogens is high.     

The use of hallucinogenic mushrooms for diagnostic purposes among some highland Chinantecs

This article describes the ingestion of hallucinogenic mushrooms—Psilocybe Hoogshagenii Heim—as a means to diagnose illness among contemporary Chinantec-speaking Indians of the Sierra de Ixtlán, Oaxaca, México. It is possible that several varieties of hallucinogenic mushrooms are used amongst these highland Chinantecs, the specific variety utilized depending upon “seasonal availability and the precise purpose for which the narcotic is to be taken” (Schultes, 1972: 10). However, the following describes only the observed use ofPsilocybe Hoogshagenii, and it should not be generalized to the use of other mushrooms which may prove equally available to diagnosticians in the Sierra.     

Biological diversification in a complex region: a spatial analysis of faunistic diversity and biogeography of the Andes of Colombia

Aim Understanding large‐scale patterns of beta diversity and endemism is essential for ecoregional conservation planning. We present a study of spatial patterns of faunal diversification and biogeographical relationships in the Andean region of Colombia. This region has a great geomorphological complexity, as it is formed by several mountain ranges with different geologic origins. We hypothesize that this complexity results in a high turnover in species composition among subregions. Location The Andean region of Colombia, including the Santa Marta and Macarena mountain ranges. Methods The region was divided into subregions, represented by the eastern and western slopes of each of the three Andean cordilleras, the Cauca and Magdalena valley bottoms, and the peripheral mountain ranges of Perijá, Macarena and Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta. Species lists for five animal taxa (rodents, bats, birds, frogs and butterflies) were compiled for each subregion and similarities in species composition were determined by cluster analysis. To explore biogeographical relationships, species were classified into one of four distributional categories: endemic, tropical Andean, Andean‐Central American and wide continental distribution. Results The highest species richness in the region was found in the Pacific and eastern versants of the Andes, and the lowest in the Cauca and Magdalena valley bottoms. Inter‐Andean slopes were intermediate in species richness. However, when species richness was calculated per unit area, the most diverse regions were the Santa Marta and Macarena ranges, the Cauca Valley watershed and the Pacific slope. Although each taxonomic group had a different branching pattern, dendrograms indicated five common subregional clusterings: (1) Perijá‐Sierra Nevada, (2) the Pacific slope, (3) the eastern Andean slope, (4) the Cauca and Magdalena valley bottoms, and (5) the inter‐Andean slopes. Clustering patterns of inter‐Andean slopes varied among taxa. In birds, bats and rodents, grouping was by opposite slopes of the same valley, whereas frogs were grouped by mountain ranges and butterflies by valleys and their respective slopes. Seventy‐five per cent of species in all taxa were found in less than five subregions. The fauna of the Magdalena and Cauca valley bottoms was composed mostly of lowland species with wide geographical distributions, whereas the cordilleran fauna was mostly restricted to the tropical Andes. Main conclusions The western and eastern versants of the Andes have the highest species richness, but are also the largest subregions. On a per unit area basis, the peripheral ranges (Santa Marta and Macarena) are the richest, followed by the western portion of the Andes (the Cauca Valley watershed and the Pacific versant). Clustering patterns in dendrograms suggest two major patterns of differentiation of the Andean fauna: one elevational (lowlands vs. highlands) and one horizontal (among ranges and/or slopes). Biogeographical affinities of the inter‐Andean valley bottoms are with the lowland faunas of tropical America. In contrast, Andean faunas diversified locally, resulting in the evolution of a large number of endemic species, particularly among the less vagile taxa. Three different main branches of Andean fauna can be recognized, one confined to the Pacific, another to the eastern (Amazonian‐Llanos) versant of the Andes, and the third one composed by the inter‐Andean slopes of the Cauca and Magdalena valleys. The identification of five main biogeographical units in the Andean region of Colombia has important implications for the conservation of the regional biota. Conservation initiatives that seek to preserve representative samples of the regional biodiversity should take into account the patterns of diversification described here, and the evolutionary processes that gave rise to these patterns.     

Physio-chemical characterization of indigenous agricultural waste materials for the development of potting media

Organic residues are an important factor that directly affects fruiting tree seedlings' health at earlier stages. It provides a suitable environment for seedling growth by providing better nutrient ions, water, and aeration. However, low organic contents and high shrinkage of most organic materials mostly deteriorate ideal potting media characteristics. Low aeration, high water, and nutrients leaching decrease seedling growth and cause a significant loss of valuable resources. That is why the current study was conducted to screen out the best indigenous materials based on particle size to produce good characteristics bearing potting media. For that, eight different ingredients, i.e., “sugarcane”, “coconut coir”, “wheat straw”, “rice straw”, “corn cob”, “leaf litter”, “farmyard manure”, and “sunflower heads” were collected. Initially, all the materials were air-dried and processes as per requirement. After grinding, three particles size (fine = < 2 mm, medium = 3 mm and coarse = 5 mm) were separated by sieving. Results showed that decreasing particle size in “rice straw”, “corn cob”, “farmyard manure,” and “sunflower head” decreased leachate pH. Higher EC in leachates was negatively correlated with particle size in all potting media ingredients. Except for farmyard manure, fine particle size increases the water-holding ability of potting media ingredients. However, air-filled porosity was associated with a decrease in particle size of potting media in gradients. In conclusion, farmyard manure, “sunflower heads”, “leaf litter” and “sugarcane” should be incorporated while making a combination for potting media. More investigations are suggested by mixing different particle size ingredients to prepare potting media.     

Mapping of spatiotemporal distribution of Tibraca limbativentris Stal (Hem.: Pentatomidae) in flooded rice crop in Southern Brazil

The rice stem bug, Tibraca limbativentris Stal (Hem.: Pentatomidae), is one of the main insect pests in Brazilian rice crops. Knowledge of its spatiotemporal distribution can support the development of an effective sampling system and improve IPM strategies. This study aimed to map the spatiotemporal distribution of rice stem bug in flooded rice crop in Southern Brazil. Flooded rice crop was scouted for two seasons to estimate insect densities. Four occurrence categories were observed: no insect, only adults, only nymphs, and both phases. The relationship between phenological stages and insect categories was established. Interpolation (mapping) of occurrence categories of T. limbativentris was performed by multiquadric equations. In two seasons during the rice cycle, the results indicate that rice stem bug “adults” were the most abundant category until the mid-vegetative phase of the rice; “nymphs” were the most abundant from the end of vegetative phase; “adults + nymphs” occurred from the beginning of reproductive phase; there were no rice stem bugs in more than 66% of the area, as they were most concentrated near the edge of the crop. The information presented here provides further knowledge about T. limbativentris spatiotemporal dynamics that can be applied to improve IPM strategies, such as developing sampling plans and localized control measures at the edge of rice fields.     

Superior adaptation of aerobic rice under drought stress in Iran and validation test of linked SSR markers to major QTLs by MLM analysis across two years

Molecular Biology Reports - Drought is one of the biggest challenges for rice (Oryza sativa L.) production in rainfed areas. Developing “aerobic rice” cultivars could be a valuable...     

In vitro shiro formation between the ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete Tricholoma matsutake and Cedrela herrerae in the Mahogany family (Meliaceae)

Tricholoma matsutake is an ectomycorrhizal basidiomycete that associates with Pinaceae plants, forming a rhizospheric mycelial aggregate called “shiro” from which the prized “matsutake” mushrooms form. Here we document that T. matsutake associates in vitro with Andean Cedrela herrerae (Meliaceae) via root endophyte interactions and efficiently forms shiro. C. herrerae produces many branches, leaves, and lateral roots in association with T. matsutake, unlike C. odorata, which grows in the tropics and produces few leaves and branches in association with the symbiont. This symbiosis may be a unique approach to culturing matsutake as well as to cultivating endangered plant species in vitro.     

A cytological indicator allows rapid assessment of microspore maturity,leading to improved <Emphasis Type="Italic">in vitro</Emphasis> anther response in Indica rice (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Oryza sativa</Emphasis> L.)

The inadequate response of Indica rice (Oryza sativa L.) to anther culture hinders the utility of this technique for rice crop improvement. This study focused on intensifying the in vitro anther response of selected varieties from Sri Lankan germplasm by precisely targeting the most effective maturity stage of microspores for culture. Analysis of five varieties responsive to anther culture (“At 303”, “Bw 272-6B”, “Dahanala”, “Dikwee”, and “Herath Banda”), revealed that the microspore development stage at the time of culture was crucial for fine-tuning the callus induction response. The external guide used to determine microspore maturity which was the internode distance between the last two leaves of the panicle, could not be applied equally for all rice varieties. Anther response could be improved by, at least, four- to sixfold by precisely targeting anthers with late uninucleate microspores for culture. Close correlation was demonstrated between the stage of nuclear division in the microspores and the degree of starch accumulation. Therefore, the degree of starch deposition in the microspores can be used as an effective cytological marker, which can be applied more rapidly and reliably to assess microspore maturity, in place of the internode distance.     

Breeding quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.): potential and perspectives

Quinoa (Chenopodium quinoa Willd.) originated in the Andean region of South America; this species is associated with exceptional grain nutritional quality and is highly valued for its ability to tolerate abiotic stresses. However, its introduction outside the Andes has yet to take off on a large scale. In the Andes, quinoa has until recently been marginally grown by small-scale Andean farmers, leading to minor interest in the crop from urban consumers and the industry. Quinoa breeding programs were not initiated until the 1960s in the Andes, and elsewhere from the 1970s onwards. New molecular tools available for the existing quinoa breeding programs, which are critically examined in this review, will enable us to tackle the limitations of allotetraploidy and genetic specificities. The recent progress, together with the declaration of “The International Year of the Quinoa” by the Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, anticipates a bright future for this ancient species.     

Physicochemical properties of giant embryo rice Seonong 17 and Keunnunjami

This study was carried out to determine the physicochemical properties of giant embryo rice “Seonong 17” and “Keunnunjami” in comparison with the normal embryo rice. Scanning electron microscopy revealed that Seonong 17 and Keunnunjami have larger embryo and that starch granules from Keunnunjami were more tightly packed with smaller air spaces between granules. Seonong 17 exhibited the lowest amylose content. Keunnunjami showed the highest protein content, pasting temperature, peak and breakdown viscosities, and gelatinization temperature and enthalpy. Both giant embryo rice samples contained significantly higher amounts of essential amino acids and unsaturated fatty acids than the normal rice. Proteomic analysis using two-dimensional gel electrophoresis revealed differences in the protein profile of Seonong 17 and Keunnunjami. The results could serve as baseline information in evaluating the quality of these two giant embryo rice cultivars and provide a better understanding of their potential uses and food industry applications.     

EFFECT OF VARIETAL DIFFERENCES AND POLISHING OF RICE ON QUALITY PARAMETERS OF IDLI

The effect of varietal differences and polishing of rice on quality parameters of “idli,” an Indian fermented product, were studied. In addition, the functional properties of decorticated (whole and split) black gram (Phaseolus mungo Roxb.), were also determined. Two varieties of raw rice, “Jaya” and “Minilong,” and one variety of parboiled rice “Ponni” with two degrees of polishing (high and low) were selected. Idlis were prepared following standard procedures. Variations were observed in water and fat absorption capacities of two black gram samples. Emulsification capacity ranged from 102 to 110 mL/100 g. Foam capacities at different pH range were similar, but foam stability differed as a function of time. The pH of the fermented batter was between 4.1 and 4.8. Rice with a lesser degree of polishing fermented better with higher batter volume and microbial count, lesser shear value and gave softer idlis. However, sensory analysis revealed that idlis prepared with low‐polish rice scored significantly lower for appearance and color quality compared with products prepared with high‐polish rice. Significant differences were observed in the quality of flavor of all products. It can be concluded that the quality characteristics of Idli were influenced by the variety of rice and the degree of polishing, but the two types of black gram used, whole and split, had no effect.     

Studies on the Cereal Starches

Twenty purified rice starches of domestic and imported rices from eight countries including indica and japonica subspecies were submitted to the test of the chemical compositions, pasting characteristics and dynamic visco-elasticity of cold paste body. High correlations were found between some of these characteristics in which were observed obvious differences among the samples. For characterization of rice starches, the samples were classified in 4 groups, according to the degree of these starch characters, which were roughly expressed as “Sticky type” and “Non-sticky or Flaky type”     

EVOLUTIONARY AND HISTORICAL ANALYSIS OF PROTEIN VARIATION IN THE BLOTCHED FORMS OF SALAMANDERS OF THE ENSATINA COMPLEX (AMPHIBIA: PLETHODONTIDAE)

Geographic variation in 23 to 29 protein-encoding genetic loci was examined in 48 populations of the Ensatina complex, a “ring species” distributed around the Central Valley of California. The samples span two critical links in the chain of morphologically distinct units: the transition from the unblotched to blotched color pattern types in the vicinity of Lassen Peak, northeastern California, and a geographic gap in the range of the complex in the San Gabriel Mountains, southern California. A general pattern of isolation by distance with a regular buildup of genetic distance correlated with increases in geographic distance characterizes the populations studied, with the exception of a little-differentiated group of populations in the northern Sierra Nevada; this region is postulated to be a zone of genetic reticulation characterized by relatively high gene flow. An adaptively significant color pattern is thought to have spread into the northern Sierra Nevada from the south, but protein variants have been introduced both from the north and the south. Genetic distances across the San Gabriel Mountain gap match expectations from the pattern of buildup of genetic distance as a function of geographic distance elsewhere in the complex. A phylogenetic analysis of the protein data supports the reticulation hypothesis; whereas the southernmost populations currently do constitute a monophyletic assemblage, an “extinction experiment” demonstrates that the distinction could be the result of the recent extinction of populations in a present gap in our sampling. The Ensatina complex appears to be a dynamic entity representing several stages in the evolution of species. It is a ring species, and whereas various taxonomic arrangements are possible, no taxonomic changes are proposed.