Aspects of masticatory form and function in common tree shrews,Tupaia glis

Tree shrews have relatively primitive tribosphenic molars that are apparently similar to those of basal eutherians; thus, these animals have been used as a model to describe mastication in early mammals. In this study the gross morphology of the bony skull, joints, dentition, and muscles of mastication are related to potential jaw movements and cuspal relationships. Potential for complex mandibular movements is indicated by a mobile mandibular symphysis, shallow mandibular fossa that is large compared to its resident condyle, and relatively loose temporomandibular joint ligaments. Abrasive tooth wear is noticeable, and is most marked at the first molars and buccal aspects of the upper cheek teeth distal to P². Muscle morphology is basically similar to that previously described for Tupaia minor and Ptilocercus lowii. However, in T. glis, an intraorbital part of deep temporalis has the potential for inducing lingual translation of its dentary, and the large medial pterygoid has extended its origin anteriorly to the floor of the orbit, which would enhance protrusion. The importance of the tongue and hyoid muscles during mastication is suggested by broadly expanded anterior bellies of digastrics, which may assist mylohyoids in tensing the floor of the mouth during forceful tongue actions, and by preliminary electromyography, which suggests that masticatory muscles alone cannot fully account for jaw movements in this species.     

Mandibular function in Galago crassicaudatus and Macaca fascicularis: an in vivo approach to stress analysis of the mandible.

Single-element and/or rosette strain gages were bonded to mandibular cortical bone in Galago crassicaudatus and Macaca fascicularis. Five galago and eleven macaque bone strain experiments were performed and analyzed. In vivo bone strain was recorded from the lateral surface of the mandibular corpus below the postcanine tooth row during transducer biting and during mastication and ingestion of food objects. In macaques and galagos, the mandibular corpus on the balancing side is primarily bent in the sagittal plane during mastication and is both twisted about its long axis and bent in the sagittal plane during transducer biting. On the working side, it is primarily twisted about its long axis and directly sheared perpendicular to its long axis, and portions of it are bent in the sagittal plane during mastication and molar transducer biting. In macaques, the mandibular corpus on each side is primarily bent in the sagittal plane and twisted during incisal transducer biting and ingestion of food objects, and it is transversely bent and slightly twisted during jaw opening. Since galagos usually refused to bite the transducer or food objects with their incisors, an adequate characterization of mandibular stress patterns during these behaviors was not possible. In galagos the mandibular corpus experiences very little transverse bending stress during jaw opening, perhaps in part due to its unfused mandibular symphysis. Marked differences in the patterns of mandibular bone strain were present between galagos and macaques during the masticatory power stroke and during transducer biting. Galagos consistently had much more strain on the working side of the mandibular corpus than on the balancing side. These experiments support the hypothesis that galagos, in contrast to macaques, employ a larger amount of working-side muscle force relative to the balancing-side muscle force during unilateral biting and mastication, and that the fused mandibular symphysis is an adaption to use a maximal amount of balancing-side muscle force during unilateral biting and mastication. These experiments also demonstrate the effects that rosette position, bite force magnitudes, and types of food eaten have on recorded mandibular strain patterns.     

Jaw-muscle activity in ferrets, Mustela putorius furo.

Electromyographical (EMG) activity was recorded bilaterally from the masseter and temporalis muscles of alert ferrets (Mustela putorius furo) during mastication and crushing. Electromyographic activity was also recorded during biting while a bite-force transducer placed between the carnassial teeth registered forces ranging from 1.5 to 48.8 N. Linear regression analysis demonstrates that temporalis and masseter EMG activity are linearly related to bite force. Electromyographic activity from the balancing-side muscles is nearly equal to EMG activity of the working-side muscles during bone crushing with the carnassial teeth. It is hypothesized that a high percentage of balancing-side muscle activity in ferrets can be recruited during carnassial biting because the postglenoid process prevents ventral displacement of the working-side mandibular condyle.     

Muscular and osseous anatomy of the primate anterior temporal fossa and the functions of the postorbital septum

Many adaptive explanations for anthropoid origins incorporate hypotheses regarding the function of the postorbital septum. Two hypotheses are evaluated here: Cachel's ([1979b] Am. J. Phys. Anthropol. 50:1–18) hypothesis that the anthropoid postorbital septum evolved to augment muscle attachment area in the anterior temporal fossa and Cartmill's ([1980] in RL Ciochon and AB Chiarelli (eds.): Evolutionary Biology of the New World Monkeys and Continental Drift. New York: Plenum, pp. 243–274.) hypothesis that the septum evolved to insulate the foveate eye of haplorhines from movements in the temporal fossa during mastication. Dissections of the masticatory muscles of 55 species of primates, with emphasis on the anatomy of the anterior temporal fossa, reveal that in all anthropoids the temporal muscles take origin from the portion of the septum formed by the frontal bone. In some platyrrhines this muscle is anterior temporalis, and in others it is zygomatico-mandibularis. In tarsiers and most platyrrhines, muscle attachment to the zygomatic portion of the postorbital septum is very restricted (and of possibly varying homologies), whereas in catarrhines the zygomatico-mandibularis arises from the postorbital ridge on the zygomatic portion of the septum. This suggests that, contrary to Cachel's hypothesis, the earliest anthropoids did not have extensive areas of muscle attachment on the postorbital septum, a suggestion supported by the bony morphology of Catopithecus browni. Dissections also indicate that in all haplorhines the anteriormost temporal fibers curve around the postorbital septum between origin and insertion, implying that, were the septum not present, the anterior temporal muscles would disturb the orbital contents when contracting. This suggests that insulation may have been the septum's original function, even in the absence of a retinal fovea. In anthropoids, the rostral migration of the line of action of the anterior temporal muscles relative to the eye is attributed to their possession of extreme degrees of both orbital frontation and convergence; in tarsiers it is attributed to their possession of both massively hypertrophied eyes and moderately convergent and frontated orbits. It is argued that the postorbital septum is most likely to have evolved in a morphological context similar to that exhibited by omomyids. © 1995 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Experimental analysis of temporomandibular joint reaction force in macaques

Mandibular bone strain in the region immediately below the temporomandibular ligament was analyzed in adult and sub-adult Macaca fascicularis and Macaca mulatta. Following recovery from the general anesthetic, the monkeys were presented food objects, a wooden rod, or a specially designed bite-force transducer. Bone strain was recorded during incisal biting and mastication of food, and also during isometric biting of the rod and/or the transducer. The bone strain data suggest the following: The macaque TMJ is loaded by a compressive reaction force during the power stroke of mastication and incision of food, and during isometric molar and incisor biting. TMJ reaction forces are larger on the contralateral side during both mastication and isometric molar biting. Patterns of ipsilateral TMJ reaction force in macaques during isometric biting vary markedly in response to the position of the bite point. During biting along the premolars or first two molars a compressive reaction force acts about the ipsilateral TMJ; however, when the bite point is positioned along the M3, the ipsilateral TMJ has either very little compressive stress, no stress, or it is loaded in tension.     

Effect of bolus hardness on the chewing pattern and activation of masticatory muscles in subjects with normal dental occlusion

The aim of the study was to evaluate the effect of bolus hardness on the kinematic of mastication and jaw-elevator muscle activity in subjects with normal dental occlusion and function. The mandibular motion and the surface EMG envelope of the masseter and temporalis anterior muscles were assessed in twelve subjects during mastication of a soft and hard bolus of the same size. When chewing the hard bolus, the chewing pattern in the frontal plane was significantly higher and wider, with smaller closure angle and higher peak velocity than when chewing the soft bolus. EMG peak amplitude of both the masseter and anterior temporalis muscles was higher for the side of the bolus but the contralateral side increased its activity significantly more than the ipsilateral side when the hardness of the bolus increased (for the masseter, mean ± SD: 130.4 ± 108.1% increase for the contralateral side and 29.6 ± 26.9% for the ipsilateral side). Moreover, the peak EMG activity for both muscles occurred more distant from the closure point with hard bolus. The increased activity of the contralateral side may help maintaining the mandibular equilibrium, with indirect participation to the power stroke generated by the chewing-side masseter. The results provide kinematic and EMG adaptations to bolus hardness in healthy subjects and can be used as normative data in the development of methods for early diagnosis of impaired chewing function.     

Strain in the braincase and its sutures during function

The skull is distinguished from other parts of the skeleton by its composite construction. The sutures between bony elements provide for interstitial growth of the cranium, but at the same time they alter the transmission of stress and strain through the skull. Strain gages were bonded to the frontal and parietal bones of miniature pigs and across the interfrontal, interparietal and coronal sutures. Strains were recorded 1) during natural mastication in conjunction with electromyographic activity from the jaw muscles and 2) during stimulation of various cranial muscles in anesthetized animals. Vault sutures exhibited vastly higher strains than did the adjoining bones. Further, bone strain primarily reflected torsion of the braincase set up by asymmetrical muscle contraction; the tensile axis alternated between +45 degrees and -45 degrees depending on which diagonal masseter/temporalis pair was most active. However, suture strains were not related to overall torsion but instead were responses to local muscle actions. Only the coronal suture showed significant strain (tension) during jaw opening; this was caused by the contraction of neck muscles. All sutures showed strain during jaw closing, but polarity depended on the pattern of muscle usage. For example, masseter contraction tensed the coronal suture and the anterior part of the interfrontal suture, whereas the temporalis caused compression in these locations. Peak tensile strains were larger than peak compressive strains. Histology suggested that the skull is bent at the sutures, with the ectocranial surface tensed and the endocranial surface predominantly compressed. Collectively, these results indicate that skulls with patent sutures should be analyzed as complexes of independent parts rather than solid structures.     

The shear modulus of lower-leg muscles correlates to intramuscular pressure

Shear wave elastography (SWE) is emerging as an innovative tool to evaluate muscle properties and function. It has been shown to correlate with both passive and active muscle forces, and is sensitive to physiological processes and pathological conditions. Similarly, intramuscular pressure (IMP) is an important parameter that changes with passive and active muscle contraction, body position, exercise, blood pressure, and several pathologies. Therefore, the objective of this study was to quantify the dependency of shear modulus within the lower-leg muscles on IMP in healthy individuals. Nineteen healthy individuals (age: Mean age ± SD, 23.84 ± 6.64 years) were recruited. Shear modulus was measured using ultrasound SWE on the tibialis anterior (TA) and peroneus longus (PL) muscles using pressure cuff inflation around the thigh at 40 mmHg, 80 mmHg, and 120 mmHg. Changes in IMP were verified using a catheter connected to a blood pressure monitor. It was found that IMP was correlated to TA and PL shear modulus (spearman's rank correlation = 0.99 and 0.99, respectively). Applying a gradual increase of cuff pressure from 0 to 120 mmHg increased the shear modulus of the TA and PL muscles from 15.83 (2.46) kPa to 21.88 (4.33) kPa and from 9.64 (1.97) kPa to 12.88 (5.99) kPa, respectively. These results demonstrate that changes of muscle mechanical properties are dependent on IMP. This observation is important to improve interpretation of ultrasound elastograms and to potentially use it as a biomarker for more accurate diagnosis of pathologies related to increased IMP.     

Masticatory stress and the mechanics of "wishboning" in colobine jaws

Cercopithecoid monkeys experience relatively high strains along the lingual aspect of the mandibular symphysis because of lateral transverse bending of the mandibular corpora ("wishboning") during mastication. Hylander (Am J Phys Anthropol 64 (1984) 1-46; Am Zool 25 (1985) 315-330) demonstrated that the distribution of strains arising from wishboning loads is comprehensible with reference to the mechanics of curved beams. Theory of curved beams suggests that lingual tensile strains are some multiple of labial compressive strains, yet limitations of experimental methods and uncertainty in estimating parameters needed for theoretical calculations have confounded attempts to characterize the magnitude of this disparity of normal strains. We evaluate the theoretical disparity of normal strains in wishboning in comparison to in vitro strains collected under controlled loads for a sample of mandibles representing two colobine species (N = 6). These data suggest that in colobine monkeys, maximum normal lingual strains should be at least twice maximum labial strains. In addition, we reexamine the distribution of symphyseal stress under an assumption of asymmetric bending, a general approach for calculation of stress appropriate for members that lack a plane of symmetry and are bent along an axis that is not coincident with the member's principal axes. Under asymmetric bending in colobine mandibles, the effect of symphyseal inclination on lingual strain is mitigating at the superior transverse torus and exacerbating at the inferior transverse torus. Relative compliance of colobine mandibular bone further supports the hypothesis that the structural and material properties of the colobine mandibular symphysis do not represent a morphological strategy for minimizing masticatory strain.     

A cinefluorographic study of mandibular movement during feeding in the rat (Rattus norvegicus)

The anatomy of the masticatory apparatus, and particularly of the mandibular joints, has led to the view that mandibular movement in the Rodentia is predominantly propalinal, or forwards and backwards in direction. As part of an investigation into the mechanism of function of the mandibular joints in these animals, the feeding behaviour of "August" strain and "Wistar" rats was examined by cinephotography and cinefluorography. The rats were trained to feed on barium sulphate impregnated biscuit and animal cake and to drink radio-opaque liquids. Cinefluorographic recordings of ingestion, mastication, deglutition and of drinking were taken in both the lateral and dorso-ventral projections.
Analysis of the recordings has shown a fundamental separation of ingestive and masticatory activity in the rat, which can be attributed to the morphology of the jaws and particularly to the disparity in the lengths of the mandibular and maxillary diastemas. To bring the incisor teeth into occlusion for ingestion, the mandible is brought forward through the rest position and the condyle into articulation with the anterior part of the fossa. In mastication the condyle is moved backwards to bring the molar teeth into occlusion and the condyle into articulation with the posterior articular facet on the fossa. Once the mandible has been moved into the appropriate position for either ingestion or mastication and deglutition, the movements involved in the separation or chewing of the food are cyclical with combined horizontal and transverse movements as well as the fundamental vertical movement acting to open and close the mouth. The basic movement of ingestion carries the mandibular incisors upwards and forwards across the lingual surfaces of the maxillary incisors, so separating the bite. The grinding stroke of mastication is a horizontal movement carrying the mandibular molars anteriorly across the maxillary.     

胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料的制备和成骨性能研究

以胶原膜(含87.5 mg I型胶原蛋白)为载体, 复合3.5 mg rhBMP-2(人基因重组骨形成蛋白-2), 制备胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料。复合材料首先在兔背阔肌中埋置, 预构新生骨组织, 并采用ALP染色、Von Kossa染色和HE染色等观察复合材料的成骨过程和组织形态。然后将形成的新骨组织游离移植修复自体下颌骨体部洞穿性缺损; 并设以胶原为载体的rhBMP-2复合骨修复材料直接修复为对照组, 骨缺损不修复组为空白组。采用X线、抗压强度、硬组织切片、四环素荧光染色、骨形态计量检查, 观察复合材料修复骨缺损的质量和效果。结果表明, 胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料在兔背阔肌中4～6周成骨, 胶原材料于3～5周降解; 成骨过程为是以软骨成骨为主的方式, 新骨形态为编织骨, 可见明显的微血管分布; 游离移植修复自体下颌骨缺损, 6周缺损区为骨性愈合, 与对照组在抗压强度(P = 0.041)、新骨量(P = 0.034)均有显著性差异。胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料在骨骼肌中形成的新生骨组织可作为供骨修复一定范围的骨缺损。     

胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料的制备和成骨性能研究

以胶原膜(含87.5 mg I型胶原蛋白)为载体, 复合3.5 mg rhBMP-2(人基因重组骨形成蛋白-2), 制备胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料。复合材料首先在兔背阔肌中埋置, 预构新生骨组织, 并采用ALP染色、Von Kossa染色和HE染色等观察复合材料的成骨过程和组织形态。然后将形成的新骨组织游离移植修复自体下颌骨体部洞穿性缺损; 并设以胶原为载体的rhBMP-2复合骨修复材料直接修复为对照组, 骨缺损不修复组为空白组。采用X线、抗压强度、硬组织切片、四环素荧光染色、骨形态计量检查, 观察复合材料修复骨缺损的质量和效果。结果表明, 胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料在兔背阔肌中4～6周成骨, 胶原材料于3～5周降解; 成骨过程为是以软骨成骨为主的方式, 新骨形态为编织骨, 可见明显的微血管分布; 游离移植修复自体下颌骨缺损, 6周缺损区为骨性愈合, 与对照组在抗压强度(P = 0.041)、新骨量(P = 0.034)均有显著性差异。胶原蛋白/BMP复合材料在骨骼肌中形成的新生骨组织可作为供骨修复一定范围的骨缺损。     

α<Subscript>1A</Subscript>- adrenergic receptor mediated pressor response to phenylephrine in anesthetized rat

To determine which subtype of α_1-adrenergic receptors plays a role in the regulation of blood pressure, with α_1--adrenergic receptor-mediated vasoconstriction in perfused hindlimb as a control, we compared the inhibitory effects of various aradrenergic receptor selective antagonists on the vasopressure responses to phenylephrine between the mean arterial pressure and hindlimb perfusion pressure in anesthetized rats. In Normotensive Wistar rats, the results showed that the inhibitory effects (dose ratios of ED₅₀, Dr) of α_-1adrenoceptor selective antagonist (prazosin, Dr 13.5 ± 3.6 vs. 15.1 ± 4.3, n = 11), /ga_1A-adrenoceptor selective antagonist (5-methyl-urapidil, Dr 2.4 ± 0.9 vs. 3.7 ± 2.3, n = 12; RS-17053, Dr 3.2 ± 1.6 vs. 4.4 ± 3.3, n =12) and α_1D- adrenoceptor selective antagonist (BMY7378, Dr 1.9 ±0.9 vs. 2.2 ± 0.8, n = 8) on phenylephrineinduced increases of perfusion pressure in the autoperfused femoral beds were the same as that in the mean arterial blood pressure in normotensive Wistar rats. The inhibitory effects of antagonists (RS-17053, Dr 3.4 ± 0.6 vs. 4.3 ± 0.9, n = 5; BMY7378, Dr 1.7 ± 0.5 vs. 1.7 ± 0.5, n = 8) in spontaneous hypertensive rats were similar with the Wistar rats. These results suggest that the mean arterial pressure induced by phenylephrine was mainly mediated by α_1A-adrenergic receptor in both the anesthetized Wistar rats and spontaneous hypertensive rats.     

Elastic properties and masticatory bone stress in the macaque mandible

One important limitation of mechanical analyses with strain gages is the difficulty in directly estimating patterns of stress or loading in skeletal elements from strain measurements. Because of the inherent anisotropy in cortical bone, orientation of principal strains and stresses do not necessarily coincide, and it has been demonstrated theoretically that such differences may be as great as 45 degrees (Cowin and Hart, 1990). Likewise, relative proportions of stress and strain magnitudes may differ. This investigation measured the elastic properties of a region of cortical bone on both the buccal and lingual surfaces of the lower border of the macaque mandible. The elastic property data was then combined with macaque mandibular strain data from published and a new in vivo strain gage experiment to determine directions and magnitudes of maximum and minimum principal stresses. The goal was to compare the stresses and strains and assess the differences in orientation and relative magnitude between them. The main question was whether these differences might lead to different interpretations of mandibular function. Elastic and shear moduli, and Poisson's ratios were measured using an ultrasonic technique from buccal and lingual cortical surfaces in 12 macaque mandibles. Mandibular strain gage data were taken from a published set of experiments (Hylander, 1979), and from a new experiment in which rosette strain gauges were fixed to the buccal and lingual cortices of the mandibular corpus of an adult female Macaca fascicularis, after which bone strain was recorded during mastication. Averaged elastic properties were combined with strain data to calculate an estimate of stresses in the mandibular corpus. The elastic properties were similar to those of the human mandibular cortex. Near its lower border, the macaque mandible was most stiff in a longitudinal direction, less stiff in an inferosuperior direction, and least stiff in a direction normal to the bone's surface. The lingual aspect of the mandible was slightly stiffer than the buccal aspect. Magnitudes of stresses calculated from average strains ranged from a compressive stress of -16.00 GPa to a tensile stress of 8.84 GPa. The orientation of the principal stresses depended on whether the strain gage site was on the working or balancing side. On the balancing side of the mandibles, maximum principal stresses were oriented nearly perpendicular to the lower border of the mandible. On the working side of the mandibles, the orientation of the maximum principal stresses was more variable than on the balancing side, indicating a larger range of possible mechanisms of loading. Near the lower border of the mandible, differences between the orientation of stresses and strains were 12 degrees or less. Compared to ratios between maximum and minimum strains, ratios between maximum and minimum stresses were more divergent from a ratio of 1.0. Results did not provide any major reinterpretations of mandibular function in macaques, but rather confirmed and extended existing work. The differences between stresses and strains on the balancing side of the mandible generally supported the view that during the power stroke the mandible was bent and slightly twisted both during mastication and transducer biting. The calculated stresses served to de-emphasize the relative importance of torsion. On the working side, the greater range of variability in the stress analysis compared to the strain analysis suggested that a more detailed examination of loadings and stress patterns in each individual experiment would be useful to interpret the results. Torsion was evident on the working side; but in a number of experiments, further information was needed to interpret other superimposed regional loading patterns, which may have included parasagittal bending and reverse parasagittal bending.     

Loss of molar occlusion and mandibular morphology in adults in an ancient human population consuming a coarse diet

The purpose of the study is to investigate the link between number of molar teeth retained in occlusion and mandibular morphology in adults in an ancient, high dental wear human population. The study material comprises skeletons from Mediaeval Wharram Percy, England (N = 50 female, 69 male adults). It was hypothesized that adults retaining fewer occluding molars would show reduction in mandibular dimensions, particularly in the ascending ramus and gonial regions where the main muscles of mastication have their insertions. Molar occlusal status is assessed using the concept of functional units. Mandibular morphology is assessed using a suite of ten linear measurements plus the mandibular angle. Results show no evidence for any association between number of molars retained in occlusion and mandibular angle. There was an association between mandibular size and number of molars retained in occlusion, with smaller mandibular dimensions in those retaining fewer occluding molars. Some measurements were affected more than others so that there was also some shape alteration. Alteration of mandibular dimensions was more clearly demonstrable in females than in males. Only in females could significant reduction in the ascending ramus and gonial regions be demonstrated. Reasons for the apparent difference in response to loss of molar occlusion between male and female mandibles are unclear, but sex differences in bony metabolism mediated by hormonal factors may be implicated. Results suggest that care should be exercised when including mandibles from individuals showing loss of molar occlusion in morphological studies. Am J Phys Anthropol 152:383–392, 2013. © 2013 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

In vivo strain in cranial sutures: the zygomatic arch.

Although cranial sutures presumably play a role in absorbing and/or transmitting loads applied to the skull, loading patterns on facial sutures are poorly understood. The zygomatic arch provides a comparatively isolated mechanical part of the skull containing a single suture, the zygomatico-squamosal. In pigs the zygomatico-squamosal suture has a short vertical segment located within the postorbital process and a longer horizontal segment which extends posteriorly. In anesthetized pigs single-element high-elongation strain gages were bonded over both segments of the suture. Strain was recorded during stimulation of the masseter muscles and while the lightly anesthetized animals masticated food pellets. The predominant strain patterns differed in the two segments of the suture. During mastication compressive strains predominated in the vertical segment, but tensile strains predominated in the horizontal segment. The same patterns were also produced by stimulation of the ipsilateral masseter muscle. Contraction of the contralateral masseter reversed the strain pattern, but strain levels were low and during mastication such reversals occurred only transiently. The two segments of the suture have contrasting morphologies. The vertical segment has broad, interdigitating contacts with fibers arranged in a compression-resisting orientation. The horizontal segment has a simple tongue and groove structure with fibers arranged to resist tension. Thus, the structure of the suture reflects the predominant strain pattern.     

Mechanical compression-induced pressure sores in rat hindlimb: muscle stiffness, histology, and computational models.

Pressure sores affecting muscles are severe injuries associated with ischemia, impaired metabolic activity, excessive tissue deformation, and insufficient lymph drainage caused by prolonged and intensive mechanical loads. We hypothesize that mechanical properties of muscle tissue change as a result of exposure to prolonged and intensive loads. Such changes may affect the distribution of stresses in soft tissues under bony prominences and potentially expose additional uninjured regions of muscle tissue to intensified stresses. In this study, we characterized changes in tangent elastic moduli and strain energy densities of rat gracilis muscles exposed to pressure in vivo (11.5, 35, or 70 kPa for 2, 4, or 6 h) and incorporated the abnormal properties that were measured in finite element models of the head, shoulders, pelvis, and heels of a recumbent patient. Using in vitro uniaxial tension testing, we found that tangent elastic moduli of muscles exposed to 35 and 70 kPa were 1.6-fold those of controls (P < 0.05, for strains /=5%). Histological (phosphotungstic acid hematoxylin) evaluation showed that this stiffening accompanied extensive necrotic damage. Incorporating these effects into the finite element models, we were able to show that the increased muscle stiffness in widening regions results in elevated tissue stresses that exacerbate the potential for tissue necrosis. Interfacial pressures could not predict deep muscle (e.g., longissimus or gluteus) stresses and injuring conditions. We conclude that information on internal muscle stresses is required to establish new criteria for pressure sore prevention.     

Deformation of nasal septal cartilage during mastication

The cartilaginous nasal septum plays a major role in structural integrity and growth of the face, but its internal location has made physiologic study difficult. By surgically implanting transducers in 10 miniature pigs (Sus scrofa), we recorded in vivo strains generated in the nasal septum during mastication and masseter stimulation. The goals were (1) to determine whether the cartilage should be considered as a vertical strut supporting the nasal cavity and preventing its collapse, or as a damper of stresses generated during mastication and (2) to shed light on the overall pattern of snout deformation during mastication. Strains were recorded simultaneously at the septo‐ethmoid junction and nasofrontal suture during mastication. A third location in the anterior part of the cartilage was added during masseter stimulation and manipulation. Contraction of jaw closing muscles during mastication was accompanied by anteroposterior compressive strains (around ?1,000 με) in the septo‐ethmoid junction. Both the orientation and the magnitude of the strain suggest that the septum does not act as a vertical strut but may act in absorbing loads generated during mastication. The results from masseter stimulation and manipulation further suggest that the masticatory strain pattern arises from a combination of dorsal bending and/or shearing and anteroposterior compression of the snout. J. Morphol., 2009. © 2009 Wiley‐Liss, Inc.     

Loading patterns and jaw movements during mastication in Macaca fascicularis: a bone-strain, electromyographic, and cineradiographic analysis

Rosette strain gage, electromyography (EMG), and cineradiographic techniques were used to analyze loading patterns and jaw movements during mastication in Macaca fascicularis. The cineradiographic data indicate that macaques generally swallow frequently throughout a chewing sequence, and these swallows are intercalated into a chewing cycle towards the end of a power stroke. The bone strain and jaw movement data indicate that during vigorous mastication the transition between fast close and the power stroke is correlated with a sharp increase in masticatory force, and they also show that in most instances the jaws of macaques are maximally loaded prior to maximum intercuspation, i.e. during phase I (buccal phase) occlusal movements. Moreover, these data indicate that loads during phase II (lingual phase) occlusal movements are ordinarily relatively small. The bone strain data also suggest that the duration of unloading of the jaw during the power stroke of mastication is largely a function of the relaxation time of the jaw adductors. This interpretation is based on the finding that the duration from 100% peak strain to 50% peak strain during unloading closely approximates the half-relaxation time of whole adductor jaw muscles of macaques. The EMG data of the masseter and medial pterygoid muscles have important implications for understanding both the biomechanics of the power stroke and the external forces responsible for the "wishboning" effect that takes place along the mandibular symphysis and corpus during the power stroke of mastication. Although both medial pterygoid muscles reach maximum EMG activity during the power stroke, the activity of the working-side medial pterygoid peaks after the balancing-side medial pterygoid. Associated with the simultaneous increase of force of the working-side medial pterygoid and the decrease of force of the balancing-side medial pterygoid is the persistently high level of EMG activity of the balancing-side deep masseter (posterior portion). This pattern is of considerable significance because the direction of force of both the working-side medial pterygoid and the balancing-side deep masseter are well aligned to aid in driving the working-side lower molars across the upper molars in the medial direction during unilateral mastication.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 400 WORDS)     

Load transfer across the scapula during humeral abduction

Stress analysis in the individual parts of the scapula under normal physiological conditions is necessary to understand the load transfer mechanism, its relation with morphology of bone and to analyse the deviations in stress patterns due to implantation of the glenoid. The purpose of this study was to obtain stress distribution in the scapula during abduction of the arm and to obtain a qualitative estimate of the function of coracoacromial ligament. An accurate three-dimensional (3D) finite element (FE) model of the natural scapula has been developed for this purpose, using computed tomography data and shell-solid modelling approach. The model was experimentally validated. A musculoskeletal shoulder model of forces that calculates all muscle, ligament and joint reaction forces, in six load cases (30-180 degrees) during unloaded humeral abduction was used as applied loading conditions for the 3D FE model. High tensile and compressive stresses (15-60 MPa) were generated in the thick bony ridges of the scapula, like the scapular spine, lateral border, glenoid and acromion. High compressive stresses (45-58 MPa) were evoked in the glenoid and at the connection of glenoid-scapular spine-infraspinous fossa. The stresses in the infraspinous fossa and supraspinous fossa were low (0.05-15 MPa). These results indicated that the transfer of major muscle and joint reaction take place predominantly through the thick bony ridges, whereas the fossa area act more as attachment sites of large muscles. During humeral abduction, coracoacromial ligament was stretched, and presumably will be under tension.