安徽定远侯家寨遗址二期植物性食物资源利用的淀粉粒证据

淮河中游地区位于中国中东部地理、气候、文化的过渡地带,同时也是新石器时代北方旱作农业与南方稻作农业分布的交错地带。现有植物考古资料表明,新石器时代晚期是淮河中游地区农业结构从单一的稻作农业转变为稻旱兼作农业的关键阶段。然而,新石器时代晚期淮河中游地区,尤其是淮干以南地区先民的植物资源利用情况,以及该地区农业结构何时发生转变等问题至今依然不清楚。本文利用淀粉粒分析方法,对安徽定远侯家寨遗址二期（6.2~5.6 kaBP）出土的22件陶器残片表面残留物进行了分析。结果表明新石器时代晚期淮河中游淮干以南地区先民利用的植物性食物资源具有多样性,包括稻属（Oryza spp.）、小麦族（Triticeae）、薏苡属（Coix spp.）、粟（Setaria italica (L) P. Beauv.）、黍（Panicum miliaceum L.）、栎属（Quercus spp.）、莲属（Nelumbo spp.）以及块根块茎类植物等。稻属淀粉粒的发现证明,自新石器时代中期至新石器时代末期,淮河中游地区先民对水稻利用基本上是延续的。粟、黍淀粉粒是淮河中游淮干以南地区迄今为止已报道发现最早的旱生农作物的证据,意味着早在6.2~5.6 kaBP期间,北方旱作农业文化与淮河中游淮干以南地区可能就存在着食物的交流与传播。该结果对于了解淮河中游地区新石器时代农业发展、演变历程以及中国中东部稻作、粟作农业传播的时空路线等问题具有重要的科学价值。     

河南淅川坑南遗址石制品表面残留淀粉粒的初步分析

本文分析了河南淅川坑南遗址新石器早期2个层位出土的35件石制品的淀粉粒,在17件石制品表面发现150粒淀粉粒,它们可能分别来自黍族(包括黍属、糠稷或粟属)、薏苡属、小麦族秸秆和根茎类植物,一定程度反映了该地区先民植物资源的利用情况。第②与第③层淀粉粒数量和种类的对比表明,第②层淀粉粒数量和种类都有着大幅增加,一种可能是不同层位埋藏环境的差别导致淀粉粒保存情况的不同,另一种可能是与当时先民获取更多种类的植物资源有关。同一类型石制品表面淀粉粒数量与种类的差别,也暗示了不同石料本身硬度、孔隙对淀粉粒的吸附与捕获能力的影响。     

全新世早期中国长江下游地区橡子和水稻的开发利用

最近发掘的浙江上山和小黄山遗址(11400—8000cal BP)是长江下游地区迄今发现最早的村落遗址。这两个遗址均出土有大量磨石, 而有机物遗存保存很少。本文对7件石器进行了淀粉粒、植硅体以及矿物残留物的初步分析, 以便检验这些方法在复原古代生计形态和器物功能研究中的可行性。鉴定出的淀粉粒包括橡子、根茎类、薏苡以及疑似菱角等, 但是没有发现水稻。在发现的水稻植硅体中, 来自茎杆和叶的密度较高, 而来自颖壳的密度较低。矿物分析表明残留物来自工具的使用以及周围的土壤基质。结果显示这些磨石曾经用于加工富含淀粉的植物和制陶用的羼和料。我们认为, 对富含淀粉并且适于长期贮存的植物特别是橡子的大量开发利用是全新世早期长江下游地区生计形态中采集策略的特征。本研究显示了淀粉粒和植硅体分析在古代生计重建中的巨大潜力。对这些遗址残留物的进一步研究将有助于我们更好地理解这一地区从采集经济到定居农耕经济的转变。     

内蒙古魏家窝铺遗址陶器内淀粉粒反映的古人类食谱及相关问题

魏家窝铺遗址位于内蒙古赤峰市红山区文钟镇魏家窝铺村,是一处大型的红山文化中期环壕聚落遗址。在2009-2011年发掘出土的陶器中,许多平底器类标本内壁表面都发现有细腻的黑色灰烬,我们对这些灰烬和几件不含灰烬的陶器标本进行了植物残留物提取和鉴定,从六份样品中观测到了植物淀粉粒,这些淀粉粒可根据形态分为四种类型,分别代表了禾本科、植物地下储藏器官、疑似坚果的植物种类和未知种类。大量的禾本科淀粉粒在形态上与粟类(小米)淀粉粒极为相似,加之遗址中出土的大量炭化粟,我们推测,这些陶罐中的黑色灰烬为内部盛装的粟炭化分解所致,这些陶器正是红山文化中的食物储藏器。存在的其他类型淀粉粒表明,尽管魏家窝铺遗址出土的植物遗存已显示了较为确凿的农业经济,但采集经济也仍占有重要地位。     

河南舞阳张王庄遗址仰韶早期先民食物的淀粉粒分析

黄淮西部是我国新石器时代南、北不同考古学文化与农业模式的过渡地带,近年来该地区植物考古研究成果显著,但目前学术界对该区域仰韶早期人类植食资源利用与农业发展状况仍不甚了解。本文利用淀粉粒分析方法,对张王庄遗址出土仰韶文化早期54件陶器和13件石器进行了表面残留物提取与分析。结果显示,该遗址仰韶早期先民的植食资源利用具有显著的多样性特征,旱地农作物粟、黍虽然已在人类生业经济中占据了重要地位,但采集获取的各类野生植物资源包括薏苡属、小麦族、莲藕等仍是人类食物主要组成,其重要性甚至高于农业种植。与此同时,研究结果也表明,在至迟不晚于距今6000年的仰韶早期阶段,粟、黍两类旱地作物已传播至黄淮西部的低纬度地区并成为先民种植的主要农作物,从而在整个黄淮西部形成以粟、黍为主,水稻为辅的稻-粟兼作农业。研究结果首次提供了黄淮西部仰韶早期人类植食资源利用与农业发展状况的科学证据,对认识黄淮西部史前农作物传播与农业结构演化的具体时空过程等具有重要价值。     

安徽含山凌家滩遗址出土刻槽盆的淀粉粒分析

刻槽盆是一种内壁遍布粗糙刻划纹的特殊陶器。目前,对其功能尚没有统一的认识,而淀粉粒分析无疑将提供重要信息。本文对安徽省含山县凌家滩遗址(5500～5300 BP)发掘出土的18件刻槽盆残片开展淀粉粒分析,在陶片上发现种类丰富的淀粉粒,其中以薏苡(Coix lacryma-jobi L.)和未定禾本科(Poaceae)为主,其次是小麦族(Triticeae tribe)、壳斗科栎属(Quercus L.)和其他根茎类植物的淀粉粒,豇豆属(Vigna sp.)、莲藕(Nelumbo nucifera)和山药(Dioscorea opposita Thunb.)的淀粉粒相对较少。上述结果表明刻槽盆主要用于加工野生植物资源。值得注意的是,在器物上发现了大量受到研磨/杵捣处理的破损淀粉粒或烹煮导致的糊化淀粉粒,这表明它们应该用于研磨/杵捣和烹煮食物。淀粉粒的统计分析结果表明,先民的生业方式在不同时期发生了细微变化,薏苡和未定禾本科植物的比例虽仍占据着优势,但先民已开始有意识地减少对这两类植物的依赖,逐渐加强了对小麦族、栎属、豇豆属和根茎类植物资源的开发和利用。对具有加工痕迹的淀粉粒进行分析,发现先民在加工各类型植物时,始终采用研磨为主、烹煮为辅的方式,刻槽盆的功能在不同时期无明显变化。     

河南栾川发现直立人化石及其演化意义

洛阳考古研究院2012年5月至10月在栾川孙家洞作抢救性发掘,于原生层位发现古人类化石,同时伴有大量哺乳动物化石,以及少量人工石制品。根据伴生动物群的初步鉴定,栾川古人类的生存时代为中更新世。6件古人类化石代表3个个体:1个成年人和2个未成年人,未成年人的牙齿生长发育阶段分别与6～7岁和11～12岁的现代青少年相当。栾川孙家洞古人类牙齿具有一定的原始性,明显区别于现代人,其形态大小位于周口店直立人牙齿的变异范围内,可归入直立人的形态范畴;同时具有东亚古人类及现代蒙古人群的地区性特征。基于幼年个体上下颌骨的牙齿发育,推测栾川古人类第一臼齿萌出年龄可能接近6岁,提示具有接近于现代人的牙齿生长模式和生活史特点。栾川中更新世古人类化石的发现为中国古人类连续演化假说提供了新证据。     

广西敢造遗址史前居民口腔的健康状况

广西扶绥敢造遗址是华南新石器时代一处典型的河岸贝丘遗址,其人骨测年结果的上限为8488 BC,下限为6492 BC。本文对敢造遗址2014年出土的108例个体的999枚恒齿进行观察统计,结果显示居民的饮食结构应是以肉食为主并辅以富含淀粉的块茎类植物。该遗址居民的龋齿率高于部分农业人群,但远低于同为华南渔猎—采集经济的鲤鱼墩、甑皮岩和顶蛳山遗址,其原因应与食用块茎类植物的多寡有关。较高的牙结石罹患率(89.86%)可能与鱼类、贝类等高蛋白饮食有关。相比农业、游牧或狩猎人群,该遗址居民偏重的牙齿磨耗可能与食用含沙量较大的螺类、贝类等有关;肉类食物的食用导致该遗址居民上颌前部牙齿磨耗重于后部牙齿,而“上颌前部牙齿舌侧过度磨耗”现象的出现则与食用块茎类植物有关。     

恐龙化石保存1亿多年前禾本科起源信息

正中国科学院古脊椎动物与古人类研究所吴妍、尤海鲁和李小强三位研究人员经过近四年的努力,从一亿多年前早白垩世晚期发现的鸭嘴龙类恐龙(马鬃龙)牙齿周边保存的一种特殊结构中,成功提取到植物表皮和植硅体残留物。经过深入分析和对比研究,揭示这些含有短细胞对的表皮细胞和哑铃型结构的植硅体属于禾本科     

广西顶蛳山遗址人骨的龋齿病理观察

顶蛳山遗址位于广西壮族自治区南宁市邕宁区,保存了丰富的新石器时代文化遗存以及大量的古人类骨骼遗存。本文主要从龋齿研究入手,对顶蛳山二、三期文化(8-7 ka BP)中大于15岁的169个体的2737枚恒齿进行了观察。分别统计了龋齿等级和个体和牙齿患龋率以评估人群患龋情况,进而分析顶蛳山遗址人群的口腔健康状况,并探讨了食物构成、饮食行为与社会经济等。统计结果表明,顶蛳山遗址人群的个体和牙齿患龋率都较高。患龋率在两性、葬式、年龄段间都存在差异,女性患龋程度要高于男性;不同葬式之间差异也显著,随着年龄的增长患龋的比例和程度也随之加深。通过与其他8组新石器时代国内遗址人群的个体和牙齿患龋率的对比,我们看到包含顶蛳山在内的三组华南渔猎采集遗址的个体和牙齿患龋率都要高于其他遗址,农业遗址的人群要低于华南遗址的患龋率,而混合经济遗址的患龋率最低。龋齿的出现与人类饮食中的碳水化合物关系密切。据此,我们推测顶蛳山及其他两组华南遗址的高患龋与碳水化合物的摄入关系密切,但这与一般所认为的农业的出现没有联系。三组遗址都是以渔猎采集主导的社会经济形态,并且这时期农业并未传播至华南地区。因此我们的分析表明高患龋率与农业并没有必然联系,而华南地区当时人群所食用的碳水化合物可能源于当地的块茎类和含蔗糖类植物。     

通过烟台午台遗址人牙结石淀粉粒探究人类对植物资源的利用

本研究通过对山东烟台市午台遗址人牙结石淀粉粒的分析,发现了来自禾本科的粟（Setaria italica L.）、小麦族（Triticeae）、壳斗科栎属（Quercus sp.）、豆科（Fabaceae）及块根块茎类植物的淀粉粒,数量较为丰富,种属来源较为多样,显示了午台遗址先民利用植物性食物资源的多样性。研究表明午台先民除了利用粟黍类农作物作为主要食物资源外,还广泛采集一些野生果类和块根块茎类作为食物的补充。本研究中发现了大遗存中没有发现的壳斗科栎属等,弥补了大遗存研究的不足。     

小麦籽粒发育及淀粉晶体特性对花后高温胁迫的响应

选用2个品质类型和成熟期不同的新疆主栽小麦品种‘新春11号’和‘新春39号’,分别进行花后灌浆早期高温(花后5~8d,32℃,T_1)和中期高温(花后15~18d,38℃,T_2)处理,分析花后高温对小麦籽粒发育及淀粉晶体的影响。结果显示:(1)T_1处理明显降低了两品种籽粒长度和粒重,而T_2处理显著影响籽粒宽度和厚度;高温处理虽然降低了籽粒灌浆速率,但两品种灌浆最大峰值出现时间均在花后18d。(2)T_1处理对小麦籽粒A型淀粉粒形态的影响较大,中熟品种‘新春11号’的A型淀粉粒表面在花后10d时可观察到微孔,在花后15~20d时其粒径明显小于同期对照,在花后20~25d时淀粉粒表面压痕增多且A、B型淀粉粒表面出现明显缢缩;而早熟品种‘新春39号’淀粉粒形态和粒径大小受花后高温的影响相对较小。(3)两品种在不同高温处理下,其淀粉粒晶体特性衍射峰出现的位置相同,但淀粉粒的尖峰强度不同,表明高温胁迫不影响淀粉粒的晶体类型,但可能改变了淀粉粒内部的层状结构。研究表明,花后早期高温不仅对小麦籽粒外部形态有较大的影响,同时也影响到籽粒内部淀粉粒的形态和晶体的特性。     

A COMPARISON OF ALPHA-AMYLASES FROM THE LATEX OF THREE SELECTED SPECIES OF EUPHORBIA (EUPHORBIACEAE)

A technique for the partial purification of α-amylases from latex of Euphorbia heterophylla, E. marginata, and E. tirucalli is described. The enzymes were found to be similar to other higher plant amylases using the criteria of molecular weight, pH characteristics, kinetics, number of isozymes, and blue value-reducing value patterns. Carbohydrases other than α-amylases were not detectable in latex. The amylases were employed to examine their capacity to digest latex starch grains which are common components of the laticiferous cell in this genus. Laticifer starch grains are not susceptible to in vitro amylolysis. Removal of the starch grain membrane with Triton X-100, damaging the grain, or treating the grains with α-amylases from diverse biological sources had little effect upon hydrolysis. Grains incubated with pullulanase followed by α-amylase caused a slight but significant increase in hydrolysis of raw laticifer starch grains. These studies indicate that the nonarticulated laticifer in Euphorbia is a cul de sac for certain primary and secondary metabolic products and that the indigestible and morphologically complex starch grains in the latex have evolved to function in a secondary role within the laticifer.     

Localization and release of allergens from tapetum and pollen grains ofBetula pendula

Summary Although intact pollen grains are assumed to be the primary carrier of pollen allergens, specific immunoreactive components have been found in other aerosol fractions, e.g., starch grains and remains of tapetal cells Cryo-scanning-electron-microscopy results demonstrate the presence of a clear network of strands connecting the tapetum with the microspores. The distribution of protein in tapetal orbicules, pollen wall, and pollen cytoplasm was tested by histochemical stains for light microscopy and transmission electron microscopy. The protein is mainly localized at the apertures and starch grains in the cytoplasm of pollen and in the core and on the surface of tapetal orbicules. Monoclonal antibodies Bv-10, BIP3, and BIP4 have been used to locate the cellular sites of pollen and tapetal allergens inBetula pendula (syn.B. verrucosa). The application of rapid-freeze fixation prevented relocation of allergens from their native sites. The allergens are predominantly found in the starch grains and to lesser extent in the exine. We also tested interactions between mature birch pollen and human fluids: saliva, nostrils fluid, and eyes solution. The aim was to mimic more closely the in vivo situation during allergenic response. In all cases we observed several pollen grains that were burst and had released their cytoplasmic contents. In the nose the allergens are released from the pollen within minutes. In rhinitis, nasal pH is increased from the normal pH 6.0 to 8.0. When we used nasal fluid at pH 8.0, the number of ruptured pollen grains increased. The mechanism that might induce formation of small allergen-bearing particles from living plant cells is discussed.     

Activities of key enzymes for starch synthesis in relation to growth of superior and inferior grains on winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) spike

Weight of individual grains is a major yield component in wheat. The non-uniform distribution of single grain weight on a wheat spike is assumed to be closely associated with starch synthesis in grains. The present study was undertaken to determine if the enzymes involved in starch synthesis cause the differences in single grain weight between superior and inferior grains on a wheat spike. Using two high-yield winter wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) varieties differing in grain weight and three nitrogen rates for one variety, the contents of amylose and amylopectin, and activities of enzymes involved in starch synthesis in both superior and inferior grains were investigated during the entire period of grain filling. Superior grains showed generally higher starch accumulation rates and activities of enzymes including SS (sucrose synthase), UDPGPPase (UDP-glucose pyrophosphorylase), ADPGPPase (ADP-glucose pyrophosphorylase), SSS (soluble starch synthase) and GBSS (starch granule bound starch synthase) and subsequently produced much higher single grain weight than inferior grains. Nitrogen increased enzyme activities and starch accumulation rates, and thus improved individual grain weight, especially for inferior grains. The SS, ADPGPPase and SSS were significantly correlated to amylopectin accumulation, while SS, ADPGPPase, SSS and GBSS were significantly correlated to amylose accumulation. This infers that SS, ADPGPPase and starch synthase play key roles in regulating starch accumulation and grain weight in superior and inferior grains on a wheat spike.     

Conversion of sucrose to starch in the developing Pennisetum typhoides grain

Developing grains of pearl millet ( Pennisetum typhoides Burm. S & H cv. PIB 155) were sampled and analyzed for starch and its free-sugar precursors. The activities of invertase, sucrose-ADP (UDP) glucosyl transferase and of α-amylase and β-amylase in relation to the rate of starch accumulation in the developing grain were assayed. By culturing detached ears, the incorporation of ¹⁴C from free sugar precursors to starch was studied. The starch content gradually increased until grain maturity. The rate of starch accumulation was maximum around 12 days after anthesis. Around this period, the activities of sucrose-ADP(UDP) glucosyl transferase and α-amylase, β-amylase were also at a peak. Invertase activity was high during the early period of grain development but gradually declined as the grains matured. In the most actively metabolising milky grains, incorporation of ¹⁴C from [¹⁴C]-sugars to starch was maximum in the mid mid-milky grains. Addition of 20 m M K⁺ to the culture solution did not affect the incorporation of ¹⁴C from supplied sucrose to the free sugar pool and to the starch of the grain, but Mg²⁺ supply at 20 m M concentration lowered ¹⁴C incorporation from exogenous sucrose to grain free sugars, although the utilization of the latter for starch synthesis was enhanced.     

Crop introduction and accelerated island evolution: archaeobotanical evidence from ‘<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ais Yiorkis</Emphasis> and Pre-Pottery Neolithic Cyprus

Charred plant remains from the Cypriot Pre-Pottery Neolithic site of Krittou Marottou ‘Ais Yiorkis, situated in the foothills of the Troödos Mountains and dated to ca. 7500 cal. b.c., demonstrate the early introduction of two-grained einkorn (Triticum monococcum sensu lato). Grain measurements of two-grained einkorn from ‘Ais Yiorkis are compared to those from Aceramic and early Neolithic sites elsewhere in Cyprus, in northern Syria and central Europe. The grains appear to be larger than domestic grains of a later date from the Levantine mainland. Recent work by Purugganan and Fuller (Evolution 65:171–183, 2011) demonstrates a slow evolutionary rate in increasing grain size relative to the rates of evolution in wild species subject to natural selection. When the measurements of two-grained einkorn wheat from ‘Ais Yiorkis are compared with these same allochronic data the results indicate an accelerated rate in attaining larger grain size on Cyprus than on the mainland. The possibility of a domestication ‘event’ or rapid fixation of larger grain size characteristic of domesticated cereal crops in the context of an initially small island population is suggested by the colonisation by farmers of Cyprus in the Cypro-Pre-Pottery Neolithic.     

Suppression of α‐amylase genes improves quality of rice grain ripened under high temperature

High temperature impairs rice (Oryza sativa) grain filling by inhibiting the deposition of storage materials such as starch, resulting in mature grains with a chalky appearance, currently a major problem for rice farming in Asian countries. Such deterioration of grain quality is accompanied by the altered expression of starch metabolism‐related genes. Here we report the involvement of a starch‐hydrolyzing enzyme, α‐amylase, in high temperature‐triggered grain chalkiness. In developing seeds, high temperature induced the expression of α‐amylase genes, namely Amy1A, Amy1C, Amy3A, Amy3D and Amy3E, as well as α‐amylase activity, while it decreased an α‐amylase‐repressing plant hormone, ABA, suggesting starch to be degraded by α‐amylase in developing grains under elevated temperature. Furthermore, RNAi‐mediated suppression of α‐amylase genes in ripening seeds resulted in fewer chalky grains under high‐temperature conditions. As the extent of the decrease in chalky grains was highly correlated to decreases in the expression of Amy1A, Amy1C, Amy3A and Amy3B, these genes would be involved in the chalkiness through degradation of starch accumulating in the developing grains. The results show that activation of α‐amylase by high temperature is a crucial trigger for grain chalkiness and that its suppression is a potential strategy for ameliorating grain damage from global warming.