Exercise-induced inspiratory muscle fatigue during swimming: the effect of race distance

Exercise-induced inspiratory muscle fatigue (IMF) has been quantified for several sports. However, it is not yet known if, or to what extent, IMF is determined by the competition distance. The aim of the present study was to assess the influence of 3 different competitive front-crawl swimming race distances on the magnitude of IMF. Ten well-trained swimmers from a local swim team participated in the study and on separate days completed maximal 100-, 200-, and 400-m time trials (TTs). Before and after each trial, maximal inspiratory pressure (MIP) was measured and %IMF determined from pre- and post-time-trial differences in MIP. The heart rate (HR) and rate of perceived dyspnea (RPD) was also assessed. For all distances, posttrial MIP was lower than pretrial MIP, though this was only significant for 100 m (p < 0.05). There were no differences between distances for absolute posttrial MIP. The %IMF after the 100-m TT (8.2 ± 4.1%) was, however, significantly greater than the 400 m (4.9 ± 3.8%) TT (p < 0.05) but not 200-m TT. There were no differences between trials for HR or RPD (p > 0.05). There were no relationships between %IMF and mean pretrial MIP (r = -0.28, p > 0.05) or between %IMF and time for any TT (100 m, r = 0.25; 200 m, r = 0.34; 400 m r = 0.18; p > 0.05). The lack of difference between trials for posttrial absolute MIP suggests that race distance during swimming does not substantially influence the degree of IMF.     

Specific resistance prevents the evolution of general resistance and facilitates disease emergence

Host-shifts, where pathogens jump from an ancestral host to a novel host, can be facilitated or impeded by standing variation in disease resistance, but only if resistance provides broad-spectrum general resistance against multiple pathogen species. Host resistance comes in many forms and includes both general resistance, as well as specific resistance, which may only be effective against a single pathogen species or even genotype. However, most evolutionary models consider only one of these forms of resistance, and we have less understanding of how these two forms of resistance evolve in tandem. Here, we develop a model that allows for the joint evolution of specific and general resistance and asks if the evolution of specific resistance drives a decrease in the evolution of general resistance. We also explore how these evolutionary outcomes affect the risk of foreign pathogen invasion and persistence. We show that in the presence of a single endemic pathogen, the two forms of resistance are strongly exclusionary. Critically, we find that specific resistance polymorphisms can prevent the evolution of general resistance, facilitating the invasion of foreign pathogens. We also show that specific resistance polymorphisms are a necessary condition for the successful establishment of foreign pathogens following invasion, as they prevent the exclusion of the foreign pathogen by the more transmissible endemic pathogen. Our results demonstrate the importance of considering the joint evolution of multiple forms of resistance when evaluating a population's susceptibility to foreign pathogens.     

Exercise training prevents decline in stroke volume during exercise in young healthy subjects.

Stroke volume (SV) increases above the resting level during exercise and then declines at higher intensities of exercise in sedentary subjects. The purpose of this study was to determine whether an attenuation of the decline in SV at higher exercise intensities contributes to the increase in maximal cardiac output (Qmax) that occurs in response to endurance training. We studied six men and six women, 25 +/- 1 (SE) yr old, before and after 12 wk of endurance training (3 days/wk running for 40 min, 3 days/wk interval training). Cardiac output was measured at rest and during exercise at 50 and 100% of maximal O2 uptake (Vo2max) by the C2H2-rebreathing method. VO2max was increased by 19% (from 2.7 +/- 0.2 to 3.2 +/- 0.3 l/min, P less than 0.001) in response to the training program. Qmax was increased by 12% (from 18.1 +/- 1 to 20.2 +/- 1 l/min, P less than 0.01), SV at maximal exercise was increased by 16% (from 97 +/- 6 to 113 +/- 8 ml/beat, P less than 0.001) and maximal heart rate was decreased by 3% (from 185 +/- 2 to 180 +/- 2 beats/min, P less than 0.01) after training. The calculated arteriovenous O2 content difference at maximal exercise was increased by 7% (14.4 +/- 0.4 to 15.4 +/- 0.4 ml O2/100 ml blood) after training. Before training, SV at VO2max was 9% lower than during exercise at 50% VO2max (P less than 0.05). In contrast, after training, the decline in SV between 50 and 100% VO2max was only 2% (P = NS). Furthermore, SV was significantly higher (P less than 0.01) at 50% VO2max after training than it was before. Left ventricular hypertrophy was evident, as determined by two-dimensional echocardiography at the completion of training. The results indicate that in young healthy subjects the training-induced increase in Qmax is due in part to attenuation of the decrease in SV as exercise intensity is increased.     

Muscle triglyceride utilization during exercise: effect of training

The respiratory exchange ratio (RER) is lower during exercise of the same intensity in the trained compared with the untrained state, even though plasma free fatty acids (FFA) and glycerol levels are lower, suggesting reduced availability of plasma FFA. In this context, we evaluated the possibility that lipolysis of muscle triglycerides might be higher in the trained state. Nine adult male subjects performed a prolonged bout of exercise of the same absolute intensity before and after adapting to a strenuous 12-wk program of endurance exercise. The exercise test required 64% of maximum O2 uptake before training. Plasma FFA and glycerol concentrations and RER during the exercise test were lower in the trained than in the untrained state. The proportion of the caloric expenditure derived from fat, calculated from the RER, during the exercise test increased from 35% before training to 57% after training. Muscle glycogen utilization was 41% lower, whereas the decrease in quadriceps muscle triglyceride concentration was roughly twice as great (12.7 +/- 5.5 vs. 26.1 +/- 9.3 mmol/kg dry wt, P less than 0.001) in the trained state. These results suggest that the greater utilization of FFA in the trained state is fueled by increased lipolysis of muscle triglyceride.     

HIV-1 viral escape in infancy followed by emergence of a variant-specific CTL response

Mutational escape from the CTL response represents a major driving force for viral diversification in HIV-1-infected adults, but escape during infancy has not been described previously. We studied the immune response of perinatally infected children to an epitope (B57-TW10) that is targeted early during acute HIV-1 infection in adults expressing HLA-B57 and rapidly mutates under this selection pressure. Viral sequencing revealed the universal presence of escape mutations within TW10 among B57- and B5801-positive children. Mutations in TW10 and other B57-restricted epitopes arose early following perinatal infection of B57-positive children born to B57-negative mothers. Surprisingly, the majority of B57/5801-positive children exhibited a robust response to the TW10 escape variant while recognizing the wild-type epitope weakly or not at all. These data demonstrate that children, even during the first years of life, are able to mount functional immune responses of sufficient potency to drive immune escape. Moreover, our data suggest that the consequences of immune escape may differ during infancy because most children mount a strong variant-specific immune response following escape, which is rarely seen in adults. Taken together, these findings indicate that the developing immune system of children may exhibit greater plasticity in responding to a continually evolving chronic viral infection.     

The effect of cold treatment during seed imbibition on lettuce radicle length and the uniformity of seedling emergence

Two experiments were conducted to determine how a period of exposure to 0 ^oC, between two periods of imbibition at 20 ^oC, affected radicle development and the uniformity of seedling emergence. In both experiments cold treatments, given 12 h after seed imbibition began, produced shorter radicles than those given at 0, 4, 8, 16 and 20 h. Increasing the duration of exposure to 0 ^oC gave longer radicles and reduced the spread of seedling emergence. It is concluded that lettuce seeds are particularly sensitive to a temperature change about 12 h after seed imbibition starts.     

The effect of training on responses of beta-endorphin and other pituitary hormones to insulin-induced hypoglycemia

We studied whether the previously reported intensified beta-endorphin response to exercise after training might result from a training-induced general increase in anterior pituitary secretory capacity. Identical hypoglycemia was induced by insulin infusion in 7 untrained (VO2max 49 +/- 4 ml X (kg X min)-1, mean and SE) and 8 physically trained (VO2max 65 +/- 4 ml X (kg X min)-1) subjects. In response to hypoglycemia, levels of beta-endorphin and prolactin immunoreactivity in serum increased similarly in trained (from 41 +/- 2 pg X ml-1 and 6 +/- 1 pg X ml-1 before hypoglycemia to 103 +/- 11 pg X ml-1 and 43 +/- 9 pg X ml-1 during recovery, P less than 0.05) and untrained (from 35 +/- 7 pg X ml-1 and 7 +/- 2 pg X ml-1 to 113 +/- 18 pg X ml-1 and 31 +/- 8 pg X ml-1, P less than 0.05) subjects. Growth hormone (GH) was higher 90 min after glucose nadir in trained (61 +/- 13 mU X l-1) than in untrained (25 +/- 6 mU X l-1) subjects (P less than 0.05). Levels of thyrotropin (TSH) changed in neither of the groups. It is concluded that, in contrast to what has been formerly proposed, training does not result in a general increase in secretory capacity of the anterior pituitary gland. TSH responds to hypoglycemia neither in trained nor in untrained subjects. Finally, differences in beta-endorphin responses to exercise between trained and untrained subjects cannot be ascribed to differences in responsiveness to hypoglycemia.     

Exercise training prevents ecto-nucleotidases alterations in platelets of hypertensive rats

Mechano-growth factor (MGF) has emerged as an important mechanosensitive player in bone repair, but understanding of MGF function is hampered by the fact that MGF receptor and the underlying pathways remain unknown. In this study, fluorescein isothiocyanate (FITC)-labeled MGF-Ct24E (FITC-MGF) was used to determine the subcellular localization of MGF receptor in osteoblasts. After the primary osteoblasts were exposed to stretch with the strain at 10?%, and/or loaded with 50?ng/ml exogenous MGF-Ct24E, cells were incubated with the different concentrations of FITC-MGF (0.01, 0.1, and 1?mg/ml) followed by flow cytometry and laser scanning confocal microscope analysis. Our results showed that the fluorescence intensity and cell population internalizing FITC-MGF increased with the concentration of FITC-MGF. And all the cells were labeled with fluorescence at 1?mg/ml. Notably, FITC-MGF had nuclear localization when osteoblasts were exposed to stretch and/or 50?ng/ml MGF-Ct24E added, compared to the evident cytoplasmic localization in the static culture group. The nuclear localization of FITC-MGF in response to mechanical loading was found to associate with high expression of proliferating cell nuclear antigen, suggesting MGF and its receptor could serve as potential messengers that replay information in nuclei to control cell proliferation.     

Oscillators and the emergence of tissue organization during zebrafish somitogenesis

Genetic networks that include positive and negative feedback can exhibit oscillations. These oscillations are a form of emergence, which is when novel patterns or properties arise during self organization of complex systems. Within the extending trunk and tail of the developing vertebrate embryo, the somitogenesis oscillator governs the periodic formation of segments that ultimately become the vertebral column and musculature. These oscillations occur within the context of noise created by cell movement, mitosis, and stochastic gene expression. Here, we review recent progress in our understanding of the role of the Notch signaling pathway in the zebrafish segmentation oscillator and our appreciation of how the oscillator interfaces with different sources of noise.     

Cortical Components of Reaction-Time during Perceptual Decisions in Humans

The mechanisms of perceptual decision-making are frequently studied through measurements of reaction time (RT). Classical sequential-sampling models (SSMs) of decision-making posit RT as the sum of non-overlapping sensory, evidence accumulation, and motor delays. In contrast, recent empirical evidence hints at a continuous-flow paradigm in which multiple motor plans evolve concurrently with the accumulation of sensory evidence. Here we employ a trial-to-trial reliability-based component analysis of encephalographic data acquired during a random-dot motion task to directly image continuous flow in the human brain. We identify three topographically distinct neural sources whose dynamics exhibit contemporaneous ramping to time-of-response, with the rate and duration of ramping discriminating fast and slow responses. Only one of these sources, a parietal component, exhibits dependence on strength-of-evidence. The remaining two components possess topographies consistent with origins in the motor system, and their covariation with RT overlaps in time with the evidence accumulation process. After fitting the behavioral data to a popular SSM, we find that the model decision variable is more closely matched to the combined activity of the three components than to their individual activity. Our results emphasize the role of motor variability in shaping RT distributions on perceptual decision tasks, suggesting that physiologically plausible computational accounts of perceptual decision-making must model the concurrent nature of evidence accumulation and motor planning.     

Exercise training prevents the inflammatory response to hypoxia in cremaster venules.

Systemic hypoxia produces microvascular inflammation in several tissues, including skeletal muscle. Exercise training (ET) has been shown to reduce the inflammatory component of several diseases. Alternatively, ET could influence hypoxia-induced inflammation by improving tissue oxygenation or increasing mechanical antiadhesive forces at the leukocyte-endothelial interface. The effect of 5 wk of treadmill ET on hypoxia-induced microvascular inflammation was studied in the cremaster microcirculation of rats using intravital microscopy. In untrained rats, hypoxia (arterial Po(2) = 32.3 +/- 2.1 Torr) increased leukocyte-endothelial adherence from 2.3 +/- 0.4 to 10.2 +/- 0.3 leukocytes per 100 microm of venule (P < 0.05) and was accompanied by extravasation of FITC-labeled albumin after 4 h of hypoxia (extra-/intravascular fluorescence intensity ratio = 0.50 +/- 0.07). These responses were attenuated in ET (leukocyte adherence was 1.5 +/- 0.4 during normoxia and 1.8 +/- 0.7 leukocytes per 100 mum venule after 10 min of hypoxia; extra-/intravascular fluorescence intensity ratio = 0.11 +/- 0.02; P < 0.05 vs. untrained) despite similar reductions of arterial (32.4 +/- 1.8 Torr) and microvascular Po(2) (measured with an oxyphor-quenching method) in both groups. Shear rate decreased during hypoxia to similar extents in ET and untrained rats. In addition, circulating blood leukocyte count was similar in ET and untrained rats. The effects of ET on hypoxia-induced leukocyte-endothelial adherence remained up to 4 wk after discontinuing training. Thus ET attenuated hypoxia-induced inflammation despite similar effects of hypoxia on tissue Po(2), venular shear rate, and circulating leukocyte count.     

Population-wide emergence of antiviral resistance during pandemic influenza

Background

The emergence of neuraminidase inhibitor resistance has raised concerns about the prudent use of antiviral drugs in response to the next influenza pandemic. While resistant strains may initially emerge with compromised viral fitness, mutations that largely compensate for this impaired fitness can arise. Understanding the extent to which these mutations affect the spread of disease in the population can have important implications for developing pandemic plans.

Methodology/Principal Findings

By employing a deterministic mathematical model, we investigate possible scenarios for the emergence of population-wide resistance in the presence of antiviral drugs. The results show that if the treatment level (the fraction of clinical infections which receives treatment) is maintained constant during the course of the outbreak, there is an optimal level that minimizes the final size of the pandemic. However, aggressive treatment above the optimal level can substantially promote the spread of highly transmissible resistant mutants and increase the total number of infections. We demonstrate that resistant outbreaks can occur more readily when the spread of disease is further delayed by applying other curtailing measures, even if treatment levels are kept modest. However, by changing treatment levels over the course of the pandemic, it is possible to reduce the final size of the pandemic below the minimum achieved at the optimal constant level. This reduction can occur with low treatment levels during the early stages of the pandemic, followed by a sharp increase in drug-use before the virus becomes widely spread.

Conclusions/Significance

Our findings suggest that an adaptive antiviral strategy with conservative initial treatment levels, followed by a timely increase in the scale of drug-use, can minimize the final size of a pandemic while preventing large outbreaks of resistant infections.     

漫溢干扰过程中微地形对幼苗定居的影响

通过对比漫溢干扰后边坡、坡中和坡底幼苗的物种组成、密度、幼苗周边的环境条件及土壤种子库的差异来分析漫溢干扰过程中,微地形对幼苗定居的影响.结果表明:(1)微地形对幼苗物种组成和生物多样性指数的影响很大.漫溢干扰后,位于边坡、坡中和坡底幼苗的Simpson多样性指数和Mcintosh均匀度指数在0.01的水平上差异极显著,Margalef丰富度指数在0.05的水平上差异显著.(2)微地形对土壤盐分含量影响很大.方差分析的结果表明,除HCO3-和K+外,边坡、坡中和坡底的pH值、C023-、SO24-、Ca2+和Mg2+各指标在0.01的水平上差异极显著;全盐、总盐、Cl-和Na+各指标均在0.05的水平上差异显著.(3)微地形通过改变幼苗定居的环境条件,进而影响幼苗库的物种组成、密度和生物多样性指数.微地形中,幼苗库的各种生态指标均小于对应的土壤种子库的生态指标,从坡底到坡中到边坡,除单位面积上的植被密度外,土壤种子库和幼苗库的各项生态指标的变化趋势均不同.     

Sibling rivalry: training effects, emergence of dominance and incomplete control

Within-brood or -litter dominance provides fitness-related benefits if dominant siblings selfishly skew access to food provided by parents in their favour. Models of facultative siblicide assume that dominants exert complete control over their subordinate sibling's access to food and that control is maintained, irrespective of the subordinate's hunger level. By contrast, a recent functional hypothesis suggests that subordinates should contest access to food when the cost of not doing so is high. Here, we show that within spotted hyena (Crocuta crocuta) twin litters, dominants most effectively skew access to maternal milk in their favour when their aggression prompts a highly submissive response. When hungry, subordinates were less submissive in response to aggression, thereby decreasing lost suckling time and increasing suckling time lost by dominants. In a species where adult females socially dominate adult males, juvenile females were more often dominant than males in mixed-sex litters, and subordinate sisters used more effective counter-tactics against dominant brothers than subordinate brothers against dominant sisters. Our results provide, to our knowledge, the first evidence in a mammal that dominant offspring in twin litters do not exert complete control over their sibling's access to resources (milk), and that sibling dominance relationships are influenced by sibling sex and training effects.     

Carnosine prevents the activation of free-radical lipid oxidation during stress

Carnosine (beta-alanyl-L-histidine) injected to intact albino rats (20 mg/kg body weight) induces depletion of lipid peroxidation (LPO) products in brain and blood serum, an increase of superoxide scavenging activity in brain and serum, decrease of cholesterol: phospholipid ratio and increase of easy oxidizable phospholipid portion in brain lipid extracts. After painful stress (footshock during 2 hours) LPO products are accumulated in brain and serum, cholesterol: phospholipid ratio increases and the portion of easy oxidizable phospholipids decreases. Carnosine given before stress prevents LPO activation. Effects of carnosine and stress are not additive: LPO inhibition induced by carnosine is much more in rats subjected to stress.