The influence of environmental temperature and oxygen concentration on the recovery of largemouth bass from exercise: implications for live–release angling tournaments

The impact of variation in water temperature and dissolved oxygen on recovery of largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides from exercise was examined. For this, largemouth bass were first exercised and recovered for either 1, 2 or 4 h at ambient water temperatures (25° C) in fully oxygenated water. Results showed that exercise forced fish to utilize anaerobic metabolism to meet energy demands, and resulted in reductions in anaerobic energy stores adenosine triphosphate (ATP), Phosphocreatine (PCr) and glycogen. Exercise also resulted in a seven‐fold increase in lactate within white muscle. After 2 h of recovery in oxygenated water at acclimation temperature, physiological recovery from exercise was under way, and by 4 h most variables examined had returned to control levels. Next, largemouth bass were exercised at ambient temperatures and recovered for 2 h in environments with either elevated temperature (32° C), reduced temperature (14 and 20° C), hypoxia or hyperoxia. Both elevated and reduced temperature impaired recovery of tissue lactate and tissue ATP relative to fish recovered in water at acclimation temperature, while hyperoxic water impaired recovery of tissue ATP. Moderately hypoxic waters impaired the recovery of plasma glucose, plasma lactate and tissue PCr relative to fish recovered in fully oxygenated water. Results from this study are discussed in the context of critical oxygen and temperature guidelines for largemouth bass. In addition, several recommendations are made concerning remedial treatments used in livewells (tanks) during angling tournaments when fish are recovering from exercise associated with angling.     

Effects of angling on feeding by largemouth bass

Angling practice significantly effected the time required for largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides to begin feeding. Mean ± s.e. time until feeding resumed was longest for fish that experienced a simulated tournament (15·6 ± 2·2 h) followed by fish that were caught and released (8·4 ± 2·2 h) and controls (0·3 ± 1·6 h). Effects on feeding related to angling practices were maintained throughout the 48 h observation period. Using multiple logistic regression and bioenergetics simulations, decreased growth in fish subjected to competitive or catch-and-release angling events was predicted. Fish subjected to multiple captures in a pond experiment had greater mass loss than those not captured, supporting model predictions.     

Low temperature cardiac response to exhaustive exercise in fish with different levels of winter quiescence

We examined the cardiac responses of different fish species to anaerobic exercise at low temperatures (3 degrees C). Three species of sympatric warmwater fish with perceived differences in winter activity were used for this comparative study: the winter-quiescent largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides); the winter-active white bass (Morone chrysops); and the intermediately winter-active black crappie (Pomoxis nigromaculatus). Perceived differences in winter activity were reflected in cardiac responses; e.g. basal cardiac values were lowest for largemouth bass, highest for white bass, and intermediate for black crappie. In addition, cardiac recovery was most rapid for white bass, slowest for largemouth bass and intermediate for black crappie. When disturbed at low temperatures, largemouth bass and black crappie elevated cardiac output principally through increases in heart rate despite substantial decreases in stroke volume. Conversely, white bass principally used stroke volume modulation to change cardiac output. The results of this study indicate that different species respond differently to exercise at low temperatures. Management strategies should recognize that such variation exists and ensure that management decisions are based upon an understanding of the low temperature exercise physiology and winter biology of the species of interest.     

Failure of low-velocity swimming to enhance recovery from exhaustive exercise in largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides)

This study was intended to discover whether forcing largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) to swim at 0.5 body lengths/second following exercise would expedite recovery relative to fish recovered in static water. Exercise resulted in a suite of physiological disturbances for largemouth bass that included a depletion of anaerobic energy stores, an accumulation of lactate, and increased cardiac output. At 1 h following exercise, exhaustively exercised largemouth bass forced to swim exhibited expedited recovery relative to fish in static water, evidenced by lower concentrations of lactate in white muscle, elevated concentrations of phosphocreatine in white muscle, and reduced concentrations of glucose in plasma. By 4 h postexercise, largemouth bass forced to swim during recovery exhibited signs of physiological disturbance that were absent in fish recovered in static water. These signs of disturbance included a loss of osmotically active particles from plasma, elevated lactate in plasma, reductions of phospocreatine in white muscle, and increased cardiac output. These results are discussed in relation to the body of work with salmonid fishes showing physiological benefits to recovering fish in flowing water.     

Physiological and behavioral consequences of long-term artificial selection for vulnerability to recreational angling in a teleost fish

Few studies have examined the physiological and behavioral consequences of fisheries-induced selection. We evaluated how four generations of artificial truncation selection for vulnerability to recreational angling (i.e., stocks selected for high and low vulnerability [HVF and LVF, respectively]) affected cardiovascular physiology and parental care behavior in the teleost fish largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides. Where possible, we compared artificially selected fish to control fish (CF) collected from the wild. Although, compared to control fish, resting cardiac activity was approximately 18% lower for LVF and approximately 20% higher for HVF, maximal values did not vary among treatments. As a result, the HVF had less cardiac scope than either LVF or CF. Recovery rates after exercise were similar for HVF and CF but slower for LVF. When engaged in parental care activities, nesting male HVF were captured more easily than male LVF. During parental care, HVF also had higher turning rates and pectoral and caudal fin beat rates, increased vigilance against predators, and higher in situ swimming speeds. Energetics simulations indicated that to achieve the same level of growth, the disparity in metabolic rates would require HVF to consume approximately 40% more food than LVF. Selection for angling vulnerability resulted in clear differences in physiological and energetic attributes. Not only is vulnerability to angling a heritable trait, but high vulnerability covaries with factors including higher metabolic rates, reduced metabolic scope, and increased parental care activity. Despite these energetically costly differences, HVF and LVF of the same age were of similar size, suggesting that heightened food consumption in HVF compensated for added costs in experimental ponds. Ultimately, angling vulnerability appears to be a complex interaction of numerous factors leading to selection for very different phenotypes. If HVF are selectively harvested from a population, the remaining fish in that population may be less effective in providing parental care, potentially reducing reproductive output. The strong angling pressure in many freshwater systems, and therefore the potential for this to occur in the wild, necessitate management approaches that recognize the potential evolutionary consequences of angling.     

Do the effects of piscivorous largemouth bass cascade to the plankton?

Ecologists have hypothesized that an increase in the biomass of piscivorous fish in lakes will cause a decrease in populations of planktivorous fish, an increase in the size of herbivorous zooplankton and a decrease in the biomass of phytoplankton. Here we present an experimental test of whether the effects of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) cascade to the planktivorous fish, zooplankton and phytoplankton of a 15-ha water storage reservoir. A pilot study indicated that the reservoir was eutrophic with dense populations of planktivorous fish dominated by threadfin shad (Dorosoma petenense). No piscovorous fish were present in the reservoir. We conducted a one-month mesocosm experiment using water and plankton from the reservoir showing that the presence of threadfin shad reduced large-sized zooplankton and increased the productivity and biomass of phytoplankton. To test whether the effects of piscivorous fish could cascade to the plankton, we assessed the effects of the addition of piscivorous largemouth bass on the planktivorous fish, zooplankton and biomass of phytoplankton of the reservoir by monitoring the reservoir during the year before and the two years after largemouth bass were stocked. In the second year after the addition of largemouth bass, the number of planktivorous fish decreased and the relative abundance of threadfin shad declined. Although the abundance of cladocerans increased after the addition of largemouth bass, the average size of zooplankton did not change. We did not detect changes in chlorophyll a, Secchi depth, or concentrations of total phosphorus and total nitrogen as a result of the addition of largemouth bass.     

Behavioral thermoregulation of largemouth bass,Micropterus salmoides,and bluegill,Lepomis macrochirus,in a nuclear reactor cooling reservoir

Synopsis Behavioral responses which allow largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, and bluegill, Lepomis macrochirus, to survive under unusually high temperature conditions were examined. Distribution of fish was ascertained by angling. Body temperatures of 4 fish were obtained using radio transmitters. Temperatures of other fish were measured after fish were captured by angling. Both species were restricted in range by lethal water temperatures and therefore inhabited a greater portion of a thermally altered reservoir in winter than in summer. Under unheated conditions (during reactor shutdown), bass occupied shallow areas with an abundance of submerged logs and stumps, a deep area with springs, and a cove where the effluent canal entered the reservoir. Commencement of reactor operation resulted in an increase in water temperature to more than 50°C in summer. Bass and bluegill retreated to three refuges and remained there until the reactor shut down and the reservoir cooled. In the refuges, bass experienced a wide variety of temperatures, but adults generally avoided temperatures above 31°C. Large adult bass (>40 cm) occupied particular positions in a refuge cove, medium size bass (15–40 cm) swam in the open water, and small bass (相似文献   

The influence of selection for vulnerability to angling on foraging ecology in largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides

Several traits related to foraging behaviour were assessed in young-of-the-year produced from largemouth bass Micropterus salmoides that had been exposed to four generations of artificial selection for vulnerability to angling. As recreational angling may target foraging ability, this study tested the hypothesis that selection for vulnerability to angling would affect behaviours associated with foraging ecology and prey capture success. Fish selected for low vulnerability to angling captured more prey and attempted more captures than high vulnerability fish. The higher capture attempts, however, ultimately resulted in a lower capture success for low vulnerability fish. Low vulnerability fish also had higher prey rejection rates, marginally shorter reactive distance and were more efficient at converting prey consumed into growth than their high vulnerability counterparts. Selection due to recreational fishing has the potential to affect many aspects of the foraging ecology of the targeted population and highlights the importance of understanding evolutionary effects and how these need to be considered when managing populations.     

Predation of Japanese dace, Tribolodon hakonensis, by largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, in experimental aquaria

 To test the size range of prey fish that largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides, can successfully consume, live Japanese dace, Tribolodon hakonensis, were given as prey fish to individual largemouth bass in aquaria. The ratio of maximum standard length (SL) of the Japanese dace consumed by largemouth bass was 46–69% of bass SL. The maximum length of Japanese dace consumed did not differ significantly between largemouth bass and smallmouth bass (M. dolomieu) previously studied, although largemouth bass have relatively larger mouth sizes than smallmouth bass. Largemouth bass occasionally injured and killed Japanese dace larger than the limit that could be consumed.     

Angling-induced cardiac disturbance of free-swimming largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) monitored with heart rate telemetry

The sub‐lethal effects of catch‐and‐release angling have been poorly studied because of the difficulties in monitoring physiological parameters in free‐swimming fish. Laboratory studies provide the opportunity to examine sub‐lethal effects in controlled environments, but do not incorporate site‐specific characteristics. In this study we angled free‐swimming largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) equipped with heart rate transmitters to exhaustion using rod and reel, and exposed fish to air for 30 s. Experiments were repeated at four water temperatures (13, 17, 21, and 25°C). These field data were compared with published findings from largemouth bass collected at the same water temperatures in a controlled laboratory setting using Doppler flow probes. Field collected heart rate data increased with increasing water temperatures (Q₁₀ values 1.30–1.37). Pre‐disturbance heart rates were ～30% higher for free‐swimming fish in the field than previously collected laboratory data at the same water temperatures. Fish angled in the field exhausted ～40% more rapidly than fish chased in the laboratory. Maximal heart rate was ～15% higher for free‐swimming fish in the field than for data collected from laboratory restrained fish, but scope for heart rate was reduced by up to 20% in the field, especially at higher water temperatures. Heart rate in free‐swimming fish was highly variable at all times, obscuring clear recovery patterns. Conversely, laboratory cardiac parameters exhibited less variable patterns, peaking clearly following disturbances and recovering in about 135 min, independent of water temperature. Based upon these findings, we suggest that comprehensive studies incorporating both laboratory and field experiments are needed for truly understanding the effect of catch‐and‐release angling on fish.     

Effects of nutritional status on metabolic rate, exercise and recovery in a freshwater fish

The influence of feeding on swimming performance and exercise recovery in fish is poorly understood. Examining swimming behavior and physiological status following periods of feeding and fasting is important because wild fish often face periods of starvation. In the current study, researchers force fed and fasted groups of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) of similar sizes for a period of 16 days. Following this feeding and fasting period, fish were exercised for 60 s and monitored for swimming performance and physiological recovery. Resting metabolic rates were also determined. Fasted fish lost an average of 16 g (nearly 12%) of body mass, while force fed fish maintained body mass. Force fed fish swam 28% further and required nearly 14 s longer to tire during exercise. However, only some physiological conditions differed between feeding groups. Resting muscle glycogen concentrations was twofold greater in force fed fish, at rest and throughout recovery, although it decreased in both feeding treatments following exercise. Liver mass was nearly three times greater in force fed fish, and fasted fish had an average of 65% more cortisol throughout recovery. Similar recovery rates of most physiological responses were observed despite force fed fish having a metabolic rate 75% greater than fasted fish. Results are discussed as they relate to largemouth bass starvation in wild systems and how these physiological differences might be important in an evolutionary context.     

Righty fish are hooked on the right side of their mouths - observations from an angling experiment with largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides

The development of muscles and bones in fish is laterally asymmetric (laterality). A "lefty" individual has a "C"-shaped body, with its left-side muscles more developed and the left side of its head facing forward. The body of a "righty" is the mirror-image. This laterality causes asymmetric interactions between individuals of different fish species, in that a righty or lefty fish consumes more lefty or righty fish, respectively. To investigate the coupling mechanisms between body asymmetry and predatory behavior, we conducted angling experiments with largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides). We used the position of the fishhook set in the mouth to indicate the movement direction of the fish when it took the bait. Righty fish had more hooks set on the right side, whereas lefty fish had more on the left side, indicating that righty fish moved more to the left, and lefty fish moved more to the right, in successful catches. The relationship between the hooked position and movement direction was confirmed by video-image analysis of the angling.     

Annual cycles of growth and reproduction in hatchery–reared Florida largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides floridanus, raised on forage or pelleted diets

Annual cycles of growth and reproduction of hatchery–reared Florida largemouth bass, Micropterus salmoides floridanus , were investigated. Animals were raised on either forage (goldfish, Carassius auratus ) or a pelleted salmon feed. Male and female year–class 1 largemouth bass were sampled throughout one complete yearly cycle (January–December). A biphasic growth cycle was observed in both forage–fed and pellet–fed fish. No increase in body length or weight was observed until approximately midway through the spawning period (May), after which fish grew at a consistent rate for the remainder of the study. The reproductive cycle of forage–fed fish was characterized by a rapid increase in gonadosomatic index (GS1) between January and April, followed by a prolonged spawning period (April–July) during which GSI progressively declined. Fully regressed gonads were observed in September and October, and a resumption of gonadal recrudescence was observed between October and December. Visceral adipose deposits (expressed as mesenteric fat index; MFI) were resorbed during gonadal growth and the initial stages of the spawning period, and restored during the post–spawning phase. Fish raised on pelleted feed had growth and reproductive cycles that parallelled those of forage–fed fish, but several significant differences were observed between the two diet groups. During the growth phase of the cycle, pellet–fed largemouth bass grew significantly faster than forage–fed largemouth bass, and had significantly larger MFIs than forage–fed largemouth bass at all times of the year. Pellet–fed fish also had significantly larger GSIs than forage–fed fish. These data indicate that diet composition may be an important determinant of growth and reproductive function in this species.     

Does Angling Technique Selectively Target Fishes Based on Their Behavioural Type?

Recently, there has been growing recognition that fish harvesting practices can have important impacts on the phenotypic distributions and diversity of natural populations through a phenomenon known as fisheries-induced evolution. Here we experimentally show that two common recreational angling techniques (active crank baits versus passive soft plastics) differentially target wild largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) and rock bass (Ambloplites rupestris) based on variation in their behavioural tendencies. Fish were first angled in the wild using both techniques and then brought back to the laboratory and tested for individual-level differences in common estimates of personality (refuge emergence, flight-initiation-distance, latency-to-recapture and with a net, and general activity) in an in-lake experimental arena. We found that different angling techniques appear to selectively target these species based on their boldness (as characterized by refuge emergence, a standard measure of boldness in fishes) but not other assays of personality. We also observed that body size was independently a significant predictor of personality in both species, though this varied between traits and species. Our results suggest a context-dependency for vulnerability to capture relative to behaviour in these fish species. Ascertaining the selective pressures angling practices exert on natural populations is an important area of fisheries research with significant implications for ecology, evolution, and resource management.     

Antipredator Behavior of American Bullfrogs (Lithobates catesbeianus) in a Novel Environment

Invasive species capable of recognizing potential predators may have increased establishment rates in novel environments. Individuals may retain historical predator recognition and invoke innate responses in the presence of taxonomically or ecologically similar predators, generalize antipredator responses, or learn to avoid risky species in novel environments. Invasive amphibians in aquatic environments often use chemical cues to assess predation risk and learn to avoid novel predators via direct experience and/or associated chemical cues. Ontogeny may also influence recognition; experience with predators may need to occur at certain developmental stages for individuals to respond correctly. We tested predator recognition in invasive American bullfrog ( Lithobates catesbeianus) tadpoles that varied in experience with fish predators at the population and individual scale. We found that bullfrog tadpoles responded to a historical predator, largemouth bass ( Micropterus salmoides), only if the population was locally sympatric with largemouth bass. Individuals from a population that did not co‐occur with largemouth bass did not increase refuge use in response to either largemouth bass chemical cues alone or chemical cues with diet cues (largemouth bass fed bullfrog tadpoles). To test whether this behavioral response was generalized across fish predators, we exposed tadpoles to rainbow trout ( Oncorhynchus mykiss) and found that tadpoles could not recognize this novel predator regardless of co‐occurrence with other fish species. These results suggest that environment may be more important for predator recognition than evolutionary history for this invasive species, and individuals do not retain predator recognition or generalize across fish predators.     

Performance as a fish predator of largemouth bass [<Emphasis Type="Italic">Micropterus salmoides</Emphasis> (Lacepède)] invading Japanese freshwaters: a review

This review focuses on how predator performance of the invasive largemouth bass [Micropterus salmoides (Lacepède)] has been, or will be, formed in Japanese freshwaters. Predation impacts of largemouth bass on fish communities appear pervasive in both Japanese as well as North American freshwaters. Factors affecting performance as a piscivorous predator are (1) light intensity and water clarity, (2) oxygen depletion, (3) prey size and gape size, (4) behavioral refuge of prey, (5) weed beds as refuge for prey fish, (6) interaction with bluegill. Size and behavioral refuges requirements are so rigorous that they may have evolved only in some North American prey fish species like bluegill; therefore, most Japanese native fish species are unlikely to be equipped with such refuges. However, refuge habitats like aquatic weed beds could develop in Japanese freshwaters, allowing prey fish species to survive under predation pressure. The density, architecture, and species composition of aquatic plants may affect their suitability as refuges. Studies in Japanese waters have suggested that the presence of rich aquatic vegetation or invasive bluegill in bass-introduced waters have suppressed the predation impact of largemouth bass on fish communities. In addition to these environmental factors, original genotypic and phenotypic traits of the introduced largemouth bass, and hybridization between different lineages of largemouth bass or with Florida bass [Micropterus floridanus (Lesueur)] may be involved in further adaptation of invasive largemouth bass to Japanese freshwaters.     

在低蛋白质饲料中补充必需氨基酸对大口黑鲈生长、体组成和免疫指标的影响

为了研究在低蛋白质饲料中补充晶体必需氨基酸对大口黑鲈生长、体组成和免疫指标的影响,根据鱼体的必需氨基酸组成模式设计了7种等能的试验饲料。其中4种饲料（45CP、40CP、35CP和30CP）的粗蛋白质水平分别为45%、40%、35%和30%,另3种饲料（40AA、35AA和30AA）是在低蛋白质饲料（40CP、35CP和30CP）的基础上添加必需氨基酸,使它们的必需氨基酸含量与45CP（对照组）相一致。用上述饲料对初始体重为（10.13 0.01） g的大口黑鲈进行了89d的饲养试验。饲养试验在室内循环水养殖系统中进行,每种饲料设3个重复,每重复放养30尾鱼。方差分析显示:试验鱼的生长性能、饲料效率、全鱼和肌肉的粗蛋白质含量、成活率以及免疫指标均随着饲料蛋白质含量的降低而显著降低（P0.05）。添加必需氨基酸的35AA和30AA的饲料效率和蛋白质保留率分别显著高于对应的未添加必需氨基酸的35CP和30CP组（P0.05）,但仍显著低于45CP组（P0.05）。40AA的试验鱼血清溶菌酶活性和血清补体活性与45CP组差异不显著（P0.05）。35AA和30AA组的头肾白细胞呼吸爆发活性显著高于35CP和30CP组（P0.05）。30AA组的全鱼粗蛋白质含量以及肥满度显著高于30CP（P0.05）。各组试验鱼的水分和灰分均无显著差异（P0.05）。回归分析显示:在低蛋白质饲料中补充晶体必需氨基酸对大口黑鲈幼鱼的生长、饲料效率和蛋白质保留率所产生的影响与其引起增加了的饲料蛋白质水平而不是饲料的必需氨基酸水平正相关。研究表明,在低蛋白质饲料中补充的晶体必需氨基酸对大口黑鲈的生长、体组成和免疫指标产生的有益作用不及等量的以蛋白质为来源的必需氨基酸。       

Growth and physiological responses in largemouth bass populations to environmental warming: Effects of inhabiting chronically heated environments

Ectotherms are susceptible to increasing environmental temperatures associated with anthropogenic warming. Supra-optimum temperatures lead to declining aerobic capacity and can increase exposure to lethal temperatures, resulting in reduced performance. Although the capacity of phenotypic plasticity to minimize the effects of temperature on physiological processes is well studied, evidence of generational changes (e.g. transgenerational plasticity and rapid adaptation) in response to environmental warming is limited in natural populations. We investigated metabolism, growth, and thermal tolerance of largemouth bass (Micropterus salmoides) populations inhabiting thermally altered lakes (i.e. power plant cooling lakes) which have year-round elevated temperature regimes and exhibit supra-optimum temperatures on a yearly basis, and compared these traits with those in largemouth bass populations from ambient lakes. Largemouth bass from ambient and heated groups (n = 3 populations per group) were spawned in an ambient, common garden pond environment, then acclimated to either a normal summertime temperature (24 °C) or a supra-optimum temperature (30 °C). Fish from heated populations had significant reductions in the resting metabolic rate at both temperatures and markedly increased growth rates at 30 °C. By comparing pond-raised fish to fish removed directly from heated lakes, we showed that developmental plasticity played little role in establishing the metabolic rate. A lower resting metabolic rate contributed to an increase in the conversion efficiency of food to biomass of largemouth bass from heated lakes, regardless of temperature. Despite inhabiting heated lakes for many decades, neither critical thermal maximum nor minimum were altered in heated populations when raised in a common garden environment. These results suggest that largemouth bass can lessen sub-lethal effects of warming by altering physiological processes to reduce the impact of warming on aerobic scope and that these changes are generationally transient, but changes in maximum thermal tolerance in response to warming is limited to phenotypic plasticity.     

Using Tournament Angler Data to Rapidly Assess the Invasion Status of Alien Sport Fishes (Micropterus spp.) in Southern Africa

Fishes are one of the most commonly introduced aquatic taxa worldwide, and invasive fish species pose threats to biodiversity and ecosystem function in recipient waters. Considerable research efforts have focused on predicting the invasibility of different fish taxa; however, accurate records detailing the establishment and spread of invasive fishes are lacking for large numbers of fish around the globe. In response to these data limitations, a low-cost method of cataloging and quantifying the temporal and spatial status of fish invasions was explored. Specifically, angler catch data derived from competitive bass angling tournaments was used to document the distribution of 66 non-native populations of black bass (Micropterus spp.) in southern Africa. Additionally, catch data from standardized tournament events were used to assess the abundance and growth of non-native bass populations in southern Africa relative to their native distribution (southern and eastern United States). Differences in metrics of catch per unit effort (average number of fish retained per angler per day), daily bag weights (the average weight of fish retained per angler), and average fish weight were assessed using catch data from 14,890 angler days of tournament fishing (11,045 days from South Africa and Zimbabwe; 3,845 days from the United States). No significant differences were found between catch rates, average daily bag weight, or the average fish weight between countries, suggesting that bass populations in southern Africa reach comparable sizes and numbers relative to waters in their native distribution. Given the minimal cost associated with data collection (i.e. records are collected by tournament organizers), the standardized nature of the events, and consistent bias (i.e. selection for the biggest fish in a population), the use of angler catch data represents a novel approach to infer the status and distribution of invasive sport fish.     

Gape Limitation, Prey Size Refuges and the Top–down Impacts of Piscivorous Largemouth Bass in Shallow Pond Ecosystems

Top–down control of phytoplankton biomass through piscivorous fish manipulation has been explored in numerous ecological and biomanipulation experiments. Piscivores are gape-limited predators and it is hypothesized that the distribution of gape sizes relative to distribution of body depths of prey fish may restrict piscivore effects cascading to plankton. We examined the top–down effects of piscivorous largemouth bass on nutrients, turbidity, phytoplankton, zooplankton and fish in ponds containing fish assemblages with species representing a range of body sizes and feeding habits (western mosquitofish, bluegill, channel catfish, gizzard shad and common carp). The experimental design consisted of three replicated treatments: fishless ponds (NF), fish community without largemouth bass (FC), and fish community with largemouth bass (FCB). Turbidity, chlorophyll a, cyclopoid copepodid and copepod nauplii densities were significantly greater in FC and FCB ponds than in NF ponds. However, these response variables were not significantly different in FC and FCB ponds. The biomass and density of shallow-bodied western mosquitofish were reduced and bluegill body depths shifted toward larger size classes in the presence of largemouth bass, but the biomass and density of all other fish species and of the total fish community were unaffected by the presence of largemouth bass. Our results show that top–down impacts of largemouth bass in ecosystems containing small- and deep-bodied fish species may be most intense at the top of the food web and alter the size distribution and species composition of the fish community. However, these top–down effects may not cascade to the level of the plankton when large-bodied benthivorous fish species are abundant.