Microglia-Derived Elastase Produces a Low-Molecular-Weight Plasminogen that Enhances Neurite Outgrowth in Rat Neocortical Explant Cultures

In the course of analysis of plasminogen in microglial conditioned medium (Mic-CM), novel low-molecular-weight (LMW) zymogen with a molecular mass of ～36 kDa was detected by casein-urokinase zymography. Because this form was produced when rat native plasminogen was incubated with Mic-CM, a specific protease in the Mic-CM was thought to be responsible for the production of LMW plasminogen. The production of LMW plasminogen was strongly inhibited by elastase inhibitors. Furthermore, elastase (pancreatic or leukocyte) was also found to produce LMW zymogen from native plasminogen. These results indicate that LMW plasminogen is produced through limited proteolysis by an elastase-like protease in Mic-CM. To determine the biochemical characteristics of LMW plasminogen, rat native plasminogen was cleaved by pancreatic elastase, and the fragments (LMW plasminogen and nonzymogen fragments) were purified by several kinds of column chromatography. Amino acid sequence analysis revealed that LMW plasminogen is a carboxy-terminal region that contains the fifth kringle domain and a protease active site, and the amino acid sequence is identical to that of LMW plasminogen produced by MicCM. On the other hand, the nonzymogen fragment was the amino-terminal region containing four kringle domains. The effects of native plasminogen and the fragments on neurite outgrowth of rat brain explant were examined. LMW plasminogen promoted neurite outgrowth as well as did native plasminogen, whereas nonzymogen fragments did not. These results suggest that LMW plasminogen, which is produced from native plasminogen by elastase, may be a physiologically active molecule that mediates the intercellular interaction between microglia and neurons.     

Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), a multifunctional protein in the host defense response

Secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), a ∼12 kDa nonglycosylated cationic protein, is emerging as an important regulator of innate and adaptive immunity and as a component of tissue regenerative programs. First described as an inhibitor of serine proteases such as neutrophil elastase, this protein is increasingly recognized as a molecule that benefits the host via its anti-proteolytic, anti-microbial and immunomodulatory activities. Here, we discuss the diverse functions of SLPI. Moreover, we review several novel layers of SLPI-mediated control that protect the host from excessive/dysregulated inflammation typical of infectious, allergic and autoinflammatory diseases and that support healing responses through affecting cell proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis.     

小胶质细胞的培养及鉴定

目的：获得高纯度培养原代小胶质细胞的方法并检测Notch信号通路相关分子在小胶质细胞的表达情况。方法：取胎鼠利用反复机械振摇纯化分离小胶质细胞;利用流式细胞仪,根据CDllb及MHCII的表达水平对分离的小胶质细胞纯度进行鉴定：利用qPCR及琼脂糖凝胶电泳检测小胶质细胞中Notch通路相关分子的表达情况。结果：利用5只胎鼠采取反复机械振摇的方法可较稳定的获得1．1x10‘个的小胶质细胞,流式细胞术结果显示细胞纯度高达97．77％,并在小胶质细胞中检测到Notch相关分子的表达。结论：利用胎鼠反复机械振摇法可以获得较高纯度及产量的小胶质细胞,小胶质细胞表达Notch信号通路。     

Identification of Cellular Compartments Involved in Processing of Cathepsin E in Primary Cultures of Rat Microglia

Abstract: Cathepsin E is a major nonlysosomal, intracellular aspartic proteinase that localizes in various cellular compartments such as the plasma membrane, endosome-like organelles, and the endoplasmic reticulum (ER). To learn the segregation mechanisms of cathepsin E into its appropriate cellular destinations, the present studies were initiated to define the biosynthesis, processing, and intracellular localization as well as the site of proteolytic maturation of the enzyme in primary cultures of rat brain microglia. Immunohistochemical and immunoblot analyses revealed that cathepsin E was the most abundant in microglia among various brain cell types, where the enzyme existed predominantly as the mature enzyme. Immunoelectron microscopy studies showed the presence of the enzyme predominantly in the endosome-like vacuoles and partly in the vesicles located in the trans-Golgi area and the lumen of ER. In the primary cultured microglial cells labeled with [³⁵S]methionine, >95% of labeled cathepsin E were represented by a 46-kDa polypeptide (reduced form) after a 30-min pulse. Most of it was proteolytically processed via a 44-kDa intermediate to a 42-kDa mature form within 4 h of chase. This processing was completely inhibited by bafilomycin A₁, a specific inhibitor of vacuolar-type H⁺-ATPase. Brefeldin A, a blocker for the traffic of secretory proteins from the ER to the Golgi complex, also inhibited the processing of procathepsin E and enhanced its degradation. Procathepsin E, after pulse-labeling, showed complete susceptibility to endoglycosidase H, whereas the mature enzyme almost acquired resistance to endoglycosidases H as well as F. The present studies provide the first evidence that cathepsin E in microglia is first synthesized as the inactive precursor bearing high-mannose oligosaccharides and processed to the active mature enzyme with complex-type oligosaccharides via the intermediate form and that the final proteolytic maturation step occurs in endosome-like acidic compartments.     

Prostaglandin E Receptor Subtypes in Cultured Rat Microglia and Their Role in Reducing Lipopolysaccharide-Induced Interleukin-1 β Production

Abstract : Prostaglandins (PGs) are potent modulators of brain function under normal and pathological conditions. The diverse effects of PGs are due to the various actions of specific receptor subtypes for these prostanoids. Recent work has shown that PGE₂, while generally considered a proinflammatory molecule, reduces microglial activation and thus has an antiinflammatory effect on these cells. To gain further insight to the mechanisms by which PGE₂ influences the activation of microglia, we investigated PGE receptor subtype, i.e., EP1, EP2, EP3, and EP4, expression and function in cultured rat microglia. RT-PCR showed the presence of the EP1 and EP2 but not EP3 and EP4 receptor subtypes. Sequencing confirmed their identity with previously published receptor subtypes. PGE₂ and the EP1 agonist 17-phenyl trinor PGE₂ but not the EP3 agonist sulprostone elicited reversible intracellular [Ca²⁺] increases in microglia as measured by fura-2. PGE₂ and the EP2/EP4-specific agonists 11-deoxy-PGE₁ and 19-hydroxy-PGE₂ but not the EP4-selective agonist 1-hydroxy-PGE₁ induced dose-dependent production of cyclic AMP (cAMP). Interleukin (IL)-1β production, a marker of activated microglia, was also measured following lipopolysaccharide exposure in the presence or absence of the receptor subtype agonists. PGE₂ and the EP2 agonists reduced IL-1β production. IL-1β production was unchanged by EP1, EP3, and EP4 agonists. The adenylyl cyclase activator forskolin and the cAMP analogue dibutyryl cAMP also reduced IL-1β production. Thus, the inhibitory effects of PGE₂ on microglia are mediated by the EP2 receptor subtype, and the signaling mechanism of this effect is likely via cAMP. These results show that the effects of PGE₂ on microglia are receptor subtype-specific. Furthermore, they suggest that specific and selective manipulation of the effects of PGs on microglia and, as a result, brain function may be possible.     

Clathrin Pit-mediated Endocytosis of Neutrophil Elastase and Cathepsin G by Cancer Cells

Neutrophil elastase (NE) is a neutrophil-derived serine proteinase with broad substrate specificity. We have recently demonstrated that NE is capable of entering tumor cell endosomes and processing novel intracellular substrates. In the current study, we sought to determine the mechanism by which NE enters tumor cells. Our results show that NE enters into early endosomal antigen-1⁺ endosomes in a dynamin- and clathrin-dependent but flotillin-1- and caveolin-1-independent fashion. Cathepsin G (but not proteinase-3) also enters tumor endosomes via the same mechanism. We utilized ¹²⁵I-labeled NE to demonstrate that NE binds to the surface of cancer cells. Incubation of radiolabeled NE with lung cancer cells displays a dissociation constant (K_d) of 284 nm. Because NE is known to bind to heparan sulfate- and chondroitin sulfate-containing proteoglycans, we treated cells with glycanases to remove these confounding factors, which did not significantly diminish cell surface binding or endosomal entry. Thus, NE and CG bind to the surface of cancer cells, presumably to a cell surface receptor, and subsequently undergo clathrin pit-mediated endocytosis.     

Identification of Protease from Euphorbia amygdaloides Latex and its Use in Cheese Production

Abstract

In this research, protease enzyme was purified and characterized from milk of Euphorbia amygdaloides. (NH₄)₂SO₄ fractionation and CM‐cellulose ion exchange chromatography methods were used for purification of the enzyme. The optimum pH value was determined to be 5, and the optimum temperature was determined to be 60°C. The V_max and K_M values at optimum pH and 25°C were calculated by means of Linewearver‐Burk graphs as 0.27 mg/L min^?1 and 16 mM, respectively. The purification degree was controlled by using SDS‐PAGE and molecular weight was found to be 26 kD. The molecular weight of the enzyme was determined as 54 kD by gel filtration chromatography. These results show that the enzyme has two subunits.

In the study, it was also researched whether purified and characterized protease can be collapsed to milk. It was determined that protease enzyme can collapse milk and it can be used to produce cheese.     

Antiretroviral Protease Inhibitors Accelerate Glutathione Export from Viable Cultured Rat Neurons

Antiretroviral protease inhibitors are crucial components of the antiretroviral combination therapy that is successfully used for the treatment of patients with HIV infection. To test whether such protease inhibitors affect the glutathione (GSH) metabolism of neurons, cultured cerebellar granule neurons were exposed to indinavir, nelfinavir, lopinavir or ritonavir. In low micromolar concentrations these antiretroviral protease inhibitors did not acutely compromise the cell viability, but caused a time- and concentration-dependent increase in the accumulation of extracellular GSH which was accompanied by a matching loss in cellular GSH. The stimulating effect by indinavir, lopinavir and ritonavir on GSH export was immediately terminated upon removal of the protease inhibitors, while the nelfinavir-induced stimulated GSH export persisted after washing the cells. The stimulation of neuronal GSH export by protease inhibitors was completely prevented by MK571, an inhibitor of the multidrug resistance protein 1, suggesting that this transporter mediates the accelerated GSH export during exposure of neurons to protease inhibitors. These data suggest that alterations in brain GSH metabolism should be considered as potential side-effects of a treatment with antiretroviral protease inhibitors.     

X-ray Structure Analysis and Characterization of AFUEI,an Elastase Inhibitor from Aspergillus fumigatus

Elastase from Aspergillus sp. is an important factor for aspergillosis. AFUEI is an inhibitor of the elastase derived from Aspergillus fumigatus. AFUEI is a member of the I78 inhibitor family and has a high inhibitory activity against elastases of Aspergillus fumigatus and Aspergillus flavus, human neutrophil elastase and bovine chymotrypsin, but does not inhibit bovine trypsin. Here we report the crystal structure of AFUEI in two crystal forms. AFUEI is a wedge-shaped protein composed of an extended loop and a scaffold protein core. The structure of AFUEI shows remarkable similarity to serine protease inhibitors of the potato inhibitor I family, although they are classified into different inhibitor families. A structural comparison with the potato I family inhibitors suggests that the extended loop of AFUEI corresponds to the binding loop of the potato inhibitor I family, and AFUEI inhibits its cognate proteases through the same mechanism as the potato I family inhibitors.     

Elevation of Substance P-like Immunoreactivity in Rat Central Nervous System by Protease Inhibitors

Abstract: Several substance P-rich areas in rat CNS had increased levels of substance P-like immunoreactivity following the intraventricular injection of the protease inhibitors SQ 20881, SQ 14225, and leupeptin. There were significant differences in response patterns from region to region, possibly on account of an interaction of anatomical, biochemical, or physiological variables. Although the compound SQ 14225 appeared to be the most potent of the inhibitors examined, it had no apparent effect on CNS substance P-like immunoreactivity when administered peripherally.     

Susceptibility of the Myelin-Associated Glycoprotein and Basic Protein to a Neutral Protease in Highly Purified Myelin from Human and Rat Brain

Abstract: Incubation of highly purified human myelin at 25° and pH 8 in ammonium bicarbonate buffer resulted in the conversion of the myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG) to a smaller derivative (dMAG) with an apparent molecular weight about 10,000 less. dMAG was stable and was not degraded to lower-molecular-weight breakdown products. Incubation of myelin under these conditions also resulted in the degradation of basic protein, but at a much slower rate. Half of the MAG was converted to dMAG in about 30 min, whereas degradation of half of the basic protein required 18 h of incubation. There was no significant loss of proteolipid, the Wolfgram doublet, or other myelin proteins during incubation for up to 18 h under these conditions. The formation of dMAG and the degradation of basic protein appear to be mediated by similar enzymatic activities; both processes exhibited broad pH optima in the neutral range, were prevented by briefly heating the myelin to 70° before incubation, and were stimulated by ammonium bicarbonate and other salts. Incubation of purified rat myelin also resulted in the formation of dMAG and the degradation of basic protein, but the conversion to dMAG occurred much more slowly than in human myelin preparations. In the rat, the percentage decreases in intact MAG and in basic protein were similar to each other and proceeded at rates comparable to the loss of basic protein in human myelin. These studies confirm and extend earlier demonstrations of neutral protease activity in purified myelin, and show that cleavage of MAG is one of the effects of this activity. The proteolytic activity affecting MAG and basic protein was not significantly reduced by further purification of the myelin on sucrose or CsCl gradients, suggesting that the neutral protease may be a myelin-related enzyme. The very high susceptibility of human MAG to this enzyme indicates that the effect of neutral protease on this glycoprotein should be considered in connection with demyelinating diseases.     

Proteolytic Histone Modification by Mast Cell Tryptase,a Serglycin Proteoglycan-dependent Secretory Granule Protease

A hallmark feature of mast cells is their high content of cytoplasmic secretory granules filled with various preformed compounds, including proteases of tryptase-, chymase-, and carboxypeptidase A3 type that are electrostatically bound to serglycin proteoglycan. Apart from participating in extracellular processes, serglycin proteoglycan and one of its associated proteases, tryptase, are known to regulate cell death by promoting apoptosis over necrosis. Here we sought to outline the underlying mechanism and identify core histones as primary proteolytic targets for the serglycin-tryptase axis. During the cell death process, tryptase was found to relocalize from granules into the cytosol and nucleus, and it was found that the absence of tryptase was associated with a pronounced accumulation of core histones both in the cytosol and in the nucleus. Intriguingly, tryptase deficiency resulted in defective proteolytic modification of core histones even at baseline conditions, i.e. in the absence of cytotoxic agent, suggesting that tryptase has a homeostatic impact on nuclear events. Indeed, tryptase was found in the nucleus of viable cells and was shown to cleave core histones in their N-terminal tail. Moreover, it was shown that the absence of the serglycin-tryptase axis resulted in altered chromatin composition. Together, these findings implicate histone proteolysis through a secretory granule-derived serglycin-tryptase axis as a novel principle for histone modification, during both cell homeostasis and cell death.     

Angiotensin II Regulation of Intracellular Calcium in Astroglia Cultured from Rat Hypothalamus and Brainstem

Abstract: Several pieces of evidence suggest a major role for brain macrophages in the overproduction of neuroactive kynurenines, including quinolinic acid, in brain inflammatory conditions. In the present work, the regulation of kynurenine pathway enzymes by interferon-γ (IFN-γ) was studied in immortalized murine macrophages (MT2) and microglial (N11) cells. In both cell lines, IFN-γ induced the expression of indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) activity. Whereas tumor necrosis factor-α did not affect enzyme induction by IFN-γ, lipopolysaccharide modulated IDO activity differently in the two IFN-γ-activated cell lines, causing a reduction of IDO expression in MT2 cells and an enhancement of IDO activity in N11 cells. Kynurenine aminotransferase, kynurenine 3-hydroxylase, and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid dioxygenase appeared to be constitutively expressed in both cell lines. Kynurenine 3-hydroxylase activity was stimulated by IFN-γ. It was notable that basal kynureninase activity was much higher in MT2 macrophages than in N11 microglial cells. In addition, IFN-γ markedly stimulated the activity of this enzyme only in MT2 cells. IFN-γ-treated MT2 cells, but not N11 cells, were able to produce detectable amounts of radiolabeled 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid quinolinic acids from l -[5-³H]tryptophan. These results support the notion that activated invading macrophages may constitute one of the major sources of cerebral quinolinic acid during inflammation.     

地衣芽孢杆菌固态发酵麻疯树饼粕产蛋白酶及其酶学性质

利用地衣芽孢杆菌作为出发菌株,以提油后的麻疯树饼粕作为培养基,采用固态发酵方式生产蛋白酶。控制培养基湿度为125%,添加10%的乳糖和5%的蛋白胨,30°C条件下发酵3d,蛋白酶产量达到最大值(7465U/g)。酶学性质研究表明,蛋白酶最适作用pH为5?6,最适催化温度为55°C,最大催化速度Vmax为0.0324μmol/(s·mg),Km值为0.0531mmol/L。有机溶剂对酶活力有明显促进作用,10%(V/V)甲醇和5%(V/V)乙醇可以使酶活力分别提高13.55%和70.9%。Mg2+可以使蛋白酶活力提高42.54%,而Hg2+却使酶彻底失活。     

烟雾加气管内滴入PPE 诱发非均质性肺气肿模型

目的:探讨烟雾与弹性蛋白酶(PPE)联合应用在兔阻塞性肺气肿模型形成过程中对肺组织X线、动脉血气、肺组织形态学结构的影响以及如何在较短时间内诱发出类似于人类疾病的非均质性肺气肿模型。方法:将40只小白兔随机分为吸烟组、注酶组、联合组及对照组4组,分别给予单纯香烟熏吸、气管内注入猪胰弹性蛋白酶、烟熏加气管内注入弹性蛋白酶及单纯气管内注入生理盐水作为对照组。7周后分别进行肺组织X线、动脉血气和肺组织形态学检查。结果:注酶组和联合组的平均肺泡数(Na)、肺泡隔面密度(Ds)及PaO2减少,PaCO2、肺总容积(TLC)和肺泡直径(Da)增加,与对照组比较,差异有显著性(P<0.05)。注酶组和联合组大鼠平均肺泡数(MAN)与正常对照组大鼠相比明显减少(P<0.05),平均肺泡面积(MAA)、平均内衬间隔(Lm)明显大于正常对照组(P<0.05),而吸烟组与正常对照组无统计学差异(P>0.05)。结论:烟雾可强化弹性蛋白酶在诱发肺气肿模型过程中的作用,二者联合应用可加快兔肺气肿模型的诱导过程。     

一株产高温蛋白酶嗜热菌A-2的筛选鉴定及酶学特性分析

本研究为从云南腾冲热泉中分离纯化得到一株产高温蛋白酶的菌株并对其进行驯化培养,用以探究该菌株的生长条件及酶学特性,通过选择培养基筛选能够分解脱脂奶粉产蛋白酶的菌株,应用常规方法液体培养菌体,探究温度、pH、碳源、氮源对菌株生长情况的影响,并采用福林酚法测蛋白酶活性。并提取蛋白酶液对酶的最适pH、温度以及热稳定性、pH稳定性进行研究。结果发现通过含脱脂奶粉的固体培养基筛选得到一株产蛋白酶菌株A-2,经过生理生化试验和16S rDNA鉴定知该菌种属于Aneurinibacillus属。酵母粉、葡萄糖、55℃、pH值7.5分别为菌株生长的最适氮源、碳源、温度和pH。此外该菌株所产的蛋白酶最适温度为60℃,在pH值7~9具有较好的酶活性。因此,该菌株为嗜热芽孢杆菌,所产的碱性蛋白酶具有较高的耐受温度和pH稳定性,为进一步开发利用提供参考的价值。     

Anionic Tetrahedral Complexes as Serine Protease Inhibitors

Potent inhibitors of proteases are constantly sought because of their potential as new therapeutic lead compounds. In this paper we report a simple computational methodology for obtaining new ideas for functional groups that may act as effective inhibitors. We relate this study to serine proteases. We have analyzed all of the factors that operate in the enzyme-substrate interactions and govern the free energy for the transformation of the Michaelis complex (MC) to the anionic covalent tetrahedral complex (TC). The free energy of this transformation ( G_MC-TC ) is the quantitative criterion that differentiates between the catalytic and inhibitory processes in proteases. The catalytic TC is shifted upwards (G_MC-TC > 0) relative to the MC in the free energy profile of the reaction, whereas the inhibitory tetrahedral species is shifted downward (G_MC-TC < 0). Therefore, the more stable the TC, the more effective it should be as an inhibitor. We conclude that the dominant contribution to the superstabilization of an anionic TC for transition state analog inhibitors originates from the formation of a -covalent bond between the reactive centers of the enzyme and its inhibitor. This energetic effect is a quantitative value obtained in ab initio calculations and provides an estimate as to whether a functional group is feasible as potent inhibitor or not. To support our methodology, we describe several examples where good agreement is shown between modeled ab initio quantum chemical calculations and experimental results extracted from the literature.