Relationship between production and release of lymphocyte-activating factor (interleukin 1) by murine macrophages. 1. Effects of various agents

The relationship between the production and release of lymphocyte-activating factor (LAF, or interleukin 1) by cultured murine peritoneal macrophages (Mφ) was investigated. Unstimulated Mφ produce high levels of intracellular LAF within a few hours after culturing, but release little of this activity into their culture medium. Addition of various agents was found to increase significantly the production and release of LAF, with three different patterns: (a) Both intracellular and extracellular LAF activities were increased in response to latex beads, (b) A marked increase of intracellular LAF, with just a minimal elevation of extracellular activity, was stimulated by LPS. (c) Sharp increases in LAF release, with small increments of the intracellular activity, were induced by silica and glucocerebroside (GL₁). Silica and GL₁ damaged the cultured Mφ, as indicated by the increased release of lactate dehydrogenase. It is significant, therefore, that silica and GL₁ increased both intracellular and extracellular LAF levels, suggesting that damage of Mφ may stimulate total LAF production. A combination of LPS with silica or GL₁ acted synergistically on Mφ to release very high levels of LAF, which far exceeded those released by the individual agents. The agents were also tested on Mφ which were precultured, to deplete their LAF content. Latex, LPS, or silica increased LAF production and release by precultured Mφ, but the levels were lower than those obtained with freshly cultured Mφ. The results of this study thus show that the level of LAF release does not necessarily reflect the level of total LAF production by cultured Mφ and suggest that injurious agents may promote LAF production.     

Components of mycobacteria and muramyl dipeptide with adjuvant activity induce lymphocyte activating factor

Several components of mycobacteria including a water-soluble extract (WSA) and an interphase material (IPM) as well as the synthetic cell wall analog muramyl dipeptide (MDP) all stimulated human mononuclear cells (MNL) to produce a factor which was mitogenic for murine thymocytes. The mediator induced by MDP is probably lymphocyte-activating factor (LAF) because it was produced by adherent but not nonadherent MNL and yields two characteristic peaks of activity in the 16,000–22,000 and 60,000–70,000 molecular weight range when eluted from Bio-Gel P-100 columns. The 6-O-stearoyl derivative of MDP was an active inducer of MNL LAF production, whereas, the d-alanine analog of MDP was somewhat less potent. Unfractionated as well as adherent, but not nonadherent, mouse peritoneal cells also produced LAF in response to WSA, IPM, and MDP. P388D₁ cell line macrophages, which are completely devoid of lymphocytes, could be stimulated by WSA, IPM, and MDP to produce LAF after prolonged incubation. These adjuvants did not stimulate nonadherent Balb/C or human blood cells to produce a mitogenic factor. However, when the P388D₁ macrophages were stimulated with these adjuvants in the presence of nonadherent murine or human peripheral blood cells, a mitogenic activity was produced in a shorter period of incubation suggesting that activated lymphocytes can facilitate the production of LAF by macrophages.     

Phorbol esters down-regulate protein kinase C in rat brain cerebral cortical slices

The effect of phorbol esters on cyclic AMP production in rat cerebral cortical slices was studied using a prelabelling technique to measure cyclic nucleotide accumulation. Cholera toxin-stimulated cyclic AMP accumulation was enhanced approximately 2-fold by phorbol 12-myristate, 13-acetate (PMA) which alone had no effect on cyclic AMP production. The augmentation by PMA was maximal within the first hour of incubation, decreasing progressively thereafter. Protein kinase C activity was decreased 80-90% during a 3 hr exposure to PMA, as was 3H-phorbol 12,13-dibutyrate binding. Both phosphatidyl serine and arachidonic acid were found to enhance protein kinase C activity in a concentration-dependent manner, an effect that was attenuated by prolonged incubation of the brain tissue with PMA. The results indicate that exposure of brain slices to phorbol esters causes a down-regulation of rat brain protein kinase C, and that this modification corresponds with a decrease in the ability of PMA to augment cyclic AMP production, suggesting a functional relationship between the two systems in rat brain.     

Attenuation of hen granulosa cell steroidogenesis by a phorbol ester and 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol

A series of studies was conducted to evaluate the effects of phorbol esters and a diacylglycerol analog on basal and hormone-stimulated steroidogenesis in granulosa cells from the largest preovulatory follicle of the domestic hen. Agents that previously have been shown to activate protein kinase C, such as the tumor-promoting phorbol ester, phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), and the synthetic diacylglycerol analog, 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol (OAG), suppressed luteinizing hormone (LH)-induced progesterone (PMA at levels of 10 and 100 ng/tube; OAG at levels of 10 and 25 micrograms/tube), and androgen (10 and 100 ng PMA; 25 micrograms OAG) production, but had no effect on basal levels of either steroid. Furthermore, PMA decreased the ability of vasoactive intestinal peptide to induce steroidogenesis, suggesting that protein kinase C activation may generally modulate the activity of hormones that act via the adenylyl cyclase/cyclic 3',5'-adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) second messenger system. In further support of this proposal was the finding that PMA and OAG decreased the production of cAMP in response to LH, and attenuated the steroidogenic response in granulosa cells exposed to 10 mM 8-bromo-cAMP. By contrast, the induction of calcium mobilization using a calcium ionophore (A23187; 0.5-2.0 microM) stimulated progesterone and androgen production without increasing intracellular levels of cAMP, and this stimulatory effect on steroidogenesis was not inhibited by the presence of 100 ng PMA/tube. From these data, we suggest that the activation of protein kinase C in granulosa cells of the hen may provide a physiological mechanism by which receptor-mediated steroidogenesis, involving the adenylyl cyclase second messenger system, is modulated.     

Isoforms of protein kinase C involved in phorbol ester-induced sphingosine 1-phosphate receptor 1 phosphorylation and desensitization

The role of protein kinase C (PKC) isozymes in phorbol myristate acetate (PMA)-induced sphingosine 1-phosphate (S1P) receptor 1 (S1P₁) phosphorylation was studied. Activation of S1P₁ receptors induced an immediate increase in intracellular calcium, which was blocked by preincubation with PMA. Both S1P and PMA were able to increase S1P₁ phosphorylation in a concentration- and time-dependent fashion. Down-regulation of PKC (overnight incubation with PMA) blocked the subsequent effect of the phorbol ester on S1P₁ phosphorylation, without decreasing that of the natural agonist. Pharmacological inhibition of PKC α prevented the effects of PMA on S1P-triggered intracellular calcium increase and on S1P₁ phosphorylation; no such effect was observed on the effects of the sphingolipid agonist. The presence of PKC α and β isoforms in S1P₁ immunoprecipitates was evidenced by Western blotting. Additionally, expression of dominant-negative mutants of PKC α or β and knockdown of these isozymes using short hairpin RNA, markedly attenuated PMA-induced S1P₁ phosphorylation. Our results indicate that the classical isoforms, mainly PKC α, mediate PMA-induced phosphorylation and desensitization of S1P₁.     

The effect of the tumor promoter, phorbol myristate acetate (PMA), on hyaluronic acid (HA) synthesis by chicken embryo fibroblasts

Treatment of chicken embryo frbroblasts (CEF) with the tumor promoter, phorbol myristate accetate (PMA), resulted in a rapid increase in their ability to synthesize the glycosaminoglycan, hyaluronic acid (HA), whereas the parent compound, phorbol, had no effect. CEF cultures incubated with PMA (100 ng/ml) for 6 h resulted in a 15-fold increase in HA synthetase activity compared with phorbol-treated control cultures. The incorporation of [³H]acetate into HA and chemical determination of this polymer also demonstrated increased synthesis of HA by cells treated with PMA. We have previously shown that CEF infected with a temperature-sensitive mutant of Rous sarcoma virus, LA24, exhibit increased synthesis of HA upon transformation. PMA treatment of cells transformed with RSV-LA24 results in a further 1.5-fold stimulation of HA synthesis. These data indicate that PMA causes an increased synthesis of HA in CEF which is analogous to the increased synthesis of HA found in virally transformed CEF.     

Inhibition of phorbol ester stimulated superoxide production by 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-sn-glycerol (OAG); fact or artefact?

OAG-stimulated superoxide (O2) production by HL-60 granulocytes showed enantiomeric specificity but reached a maximum of only 5% of that produced by either phorbol myristate acetate (PMA) or phorbol dibutyrate (PDBu). At 10-100 microM, OAG displaced specifically-bound [3H]PDBu from intact HL-60 cells by only 25%, suggesting limited cell penetration. OAG (10-100 microM) also inhibited PDBu-stimulated O2 production by 25%; this inhibition was enantiomerically specific. However, at a lower concentration (3 microM), both enantiomers of OAG fully blocked O2 production stimulated by PMA (0.5 microM). This inhibition is probably artefactual, due to the hydrophobic PMA physically associating with OAG in the extracellular fluid.     

Effect of thapsigargin on cytoplasmic Ca2+ and proliferation of human lymphocytes in relations to AIDS

The tumuour-promoting sesquiterpene lactone, thapsigargin, induced a dose-dependent increase of the cytoplasmic Ca²⁺ concentrations ([Ca²⁺]_i) in human lymphocytes from a resting level between 100 and 150 nM up to about 1 μM. Half-maximum response was found at about 1 nM of thapsigargin, full response at 100 nM. The effect of thapsigargin on [Ca²⁺], expected that of phytohaemagglutinin (PHA) which raised [Ca²⁺]_i to maximum 300 nM. In combination with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA), thapsigargin stimulated the proliferation of normal lymphocytes to the same extent as did PHA, whereas the thapsigargin /PMA treatment could not restore the defective proliferation of AIDS lymphocytes in spite of the increased [Ca²⁺]_i. Thapsigargin or PMA added separately had no stimulatory effects on cell profileration. The thapsigargin/PMA treatment caused an increase in interleukin-2 (IL-2) production of the lymphocytes, which was much higher than that caused by the PHA treatment, even in AIDS lymphocytes. Moreover, the thapsigargin/PMA treatment stimulated the expression of the IL-2 receptors on both normal and AIDS lymphocytes, similar to the effect of PHA. It is concluded that thapsigargin exerts its effects on lymphocyte proliferation by increasing [Ca²⁺]_i, and that the general defect of AIDS lymphocytes, rather than being ascribed to the initiating signal systems, is associated with later events related to DNA synthesis and proliferation.     

Multifactorial regulation of prostaglandin synthesis in preovulatory goldfish ovarian follicles.

Goldfish preovulatory ovarian follicles (prior to germinal vesicle breakdown) were utilized for studies investigating the actions of activators of different signal transduction pathways on prostaglandin (PG) production. The protein kinase C (PKC) activators phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA; 100-400 nM), 1-oleoyl-2-acetylglycerol (5 and 25 micrograms/ml), and 1,2-dioctanoylglycerol (10 and 50 micrograms/ml) stimulated PGE production; the inactive phorbol 4 alpha-phorbol didecanoate, which does not activate PKC, had no effect. Calcium ionophore A23187 (0.25-4.0 microM) stimulated PGE production and acted in a synergistic manner with activators of PKC. Although produced in lower amounts than PGE, PGF was stimulated by PMA and A23187. The direct activator of phospholipase A2, melittin (0.1-1.0 microM), stimulated a dose-related increase in PGE production, whereas chloroquine (100 microM), a putative inhibitor of phospholipase A2, blocked basal and PMA + A23187-stimulated PGE production. Several drugs known to elevate intracellular levels of cAMP including the phosphodiesterase inhibitor 3-isobutyl-1-methylxanthine (0.1-1.0 mM), forskolin (10 microM), and dibutyryl cAMP (dbcAMP; 5 mM) attenuate PMA + A23187-stimulated PGE production. Melittin-stimulated production of PGE was inhibited by dbcAMP, suggesting that the action of cAMP was distal to the activation of phospholipase A2. In summary, these studies demonstrate that activation of PKC and elevation of intracellular calcium levels stimulate PG production, in part, through activation of phospholipase A2. The adenylate cyclase/cAMP signalling pathway is inhibitory to PG production by goldfish ovarian follicles.     

Stimulation of hepatic glycogenolysis by phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate.

In isolated perfused rat livers, infusion of phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) (150 nM) resulted in a 3-fold stimulation of the rate of glucose production. This response was maximal at a perfusate PMA concentration of 150 nM, and was significantly diminished at higher concentrations of PMA (e.g. 300 nM). Stimulation of glycogenolysis by PMA was greatly decreased in livers perfused with Ca2+-free medium. PMA infusion into livers perfused in the absence of Ca2+ did not result in Ca2+ efflux from the livers. Additionally, in hepatocytes isolated from livers of fed rats, neither PMA nor 1-oleoyl-2-acetyl-rac-glycerol stimulated the rate of glucose production. Although indomethacin has been demonstrated to block PMA-stimulated hepatic glycogenolysis [Garcia-Sainz & Hernandez-Sotomayor (1985) Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 132, 204-209], infusion of PMA into perfused rat livers did not alter the rates of production of either prostaglandin E2 or 6-oxo-prostaglandin F1 alpha in the livers. These data, along with the observed increases in the perfusion pressure and decrease in O2 consumption in isolated perfused livers suggest that phorbol-ester-stimulated glycogenolysis is not a consequence of a direct effect of phorbol ester on liver parenchymal cells.     

Inhibitory effect of phorbol ester on carbachol-induced signal transduction in cultured canine tracheal smooth muscle cells

Regulation of the increases in inositol 1,4,5-trisphosphate (IP₃) production and intracellular Ca²⁺ concentration ([Ca²⁺]_i) by activation of protein kinase C (PKC) was investigated in cultured canine tracheal smooth muscle cells (TSMCs). Stimulation of TSMCs by carbachol led to IP₃ formation and caused an initial transient peak of [Ca²⁺]_i followed by a sustained elevation in a concentration-dependent manner. Pretreatment of TSMCs with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA, 1 µM) for 30 min blocked the carbachol-induced IP₃ formation and Ca²⁺ mobilization. Following preincubation, carbachol-induced Ca²⁺ mobilization recovered within 24 h. The concentrations of PMA that gave half-maximal inhibition of carbachol-induced IP₃ formation and increase in [Ca²⁺]_i were 7 and 4 nM, respectively. Prior treatment of TSMCs with staurosporine (1 µM), a PKC inhibitor, inhibited the ability of PMA to attenuate carbachol-induced responses. Inactive phorbol ester, 4-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate at 1 µM, did not inhibit these responses to carbachol. The K_d and B_max of the muscarinic receptor for [³H]N-methylscopolamine binding were not significantly changed by PMA treatment. PMA also decreased PKC activity in the cytosol of TSMCs, while increasing it transiently in the membranes within 30 min. Thereafter, the membrane-associated PKC activity decreased and persisted for at least 24 h of PMA treatment. Taken together, these results suggest that activation of PKC may inhibit phosphoinositide hydrolysis and consequently attenuate the [Ca²⁺]_i increase or inhibit both responses independently. The inhibition by PMA of carbachol-induced responses was inversely correlated with membranous PKC activity.     

Prostaglandin E2 production in astrocytes: regulation by cytokines, extracellular ATP, and oxidative agents

Upregulation and activation of phospholipases A₂ (PLA₂) and cyclooxygenases (COX) leading to prostaglandin E₂(PGE₂) production have been implicated in a number of neurodegenerative diseases. In this study, we investigated PGE₂ production in primary rat astrocytes in response to agents that activate PLA₂ including pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1β, TNFα and IFNγ), the P2 nucleotide receptor agonist ATP, and oxidants (H₂O₂ and menadione). Exposure of astrocytes to cytokines resulted in a time-dependent increase in PGE₂ production that was marked by increased expression of secretory sPLA₂ and COX-2, but not COX-1 and cytosolic cPLA₂. Although astrocytes responded to ATP or phorbol ester (PMA) with increased cPLA₂ phosphorylation and arachidonic acid release, ATP or PMA only caused a small increase in levels of PGE₂. However, when astrocytes were first treated with cytokines, further exposure to ATP or PMA, but not H₂O₂ or menadione, markedly increased PGE₂ production. These results suggest that ATP release during neuronal excitation or injury can enhance the inflammatory effects of cytokines on PGE₂ production and may contribute to chronic inflammation seen in Alzheimer's disease.     

THE NEUROPEPTIDE CALCITONIN GENE-RELATED PEPTIDE INHIBITS TNF-α BUT POORLY INDUCES IL-6 PRODUCTION BY FETAL RAT OSTEOBLASTS

Tumour necrosis factor α (TNF-α) and interleukin 6 (IL-6) are potent inflammatory cytokines produced by osteoblasts and whose contribution to bone loss occurring in oestrogen deficiency is well documented. Calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) is a neuropeptide abundantly concentrated in sensory nerve endings innervating bone metaphyses and periosteum suggesting that it controls bone homeostasis locally. Since CGRP was shown to inhibit TNF-α production by T cells and stimulate IL-6 expression by fibroblasts, this study was designed to investigate whether CGRP regulated TNF-α and IL-6 production by osteoblasts. We show that CGRP inhibits the production of TNF-α by both lipopolysaccharide (LPS)- and IL-1-stimulated fetal rat osteoblasts. Like CGRP, the cAMP agonists prostaglandin E₂(PGE₂), dibutyryl cAMP (Bt₂cAMP) and forskolin inhibit TNF-α production by osteoblasts. Exposure of osteoblasts to a high dose of phorbol myristoyl acetate (PMA) to deplete PKC activity abolished CGRP-mediated TNF-α suppression. In contrast with its potent inhibition of TNF-α production, we show that CGRP is a weak inducer of IL-6 when compared to PGE₂, Bt₂cAMP and forskolin. However, in presence of isobutylmethylxanthine (IBMX) CGRP stimulates the production of IL-6. Collectively, these data suggest that the inhibition of TNF-α CGRP is cAMP dependent and PMA sensitive and that the concentration of intracellular cAMP may be a regulatory mechanism for IL-6 expression in osteoblasts.     

Effect of phorbol and bryostatin I on chondrogenic expression of chick limb bud, in vitro

The ability of phorbol esters to promote tumor formation and alter cell differentiation has been attributed to its action on a number of critical cellular functions, in particular, on protein phosphorylation, through the activation of protein C kinase. The present paper describes the effects of PMA (phorbol 12-myristate 13 acetate) on in vitro chondrogenesis in non-passaged, embryonic limb bud cells, relative to the effects of Bryostatin I. This compound also activates C kinase and binds competitively to the phorbol ester receptor, yet does not affect cell differentiation. Levels of PMA as low as 10(-7) M markedly reduced cartilage formation in 4-day cultures, as indicated by nodule count and Alcian blue staining for chondroitin sulfate. Coadministration of Bryostatin I at equimolar concentration prevented the PMA inhibitory effect on chondrocytic expression. This confirms other findings that phorbol activation of C kinase cannot exclusively account for the activity of phorbol on cell expression, i.e., that other pathway(s) must also be involved. Altering the time of PMA exposure demonstrated that PMA inhibited chondrocyte phenotypic expression, rather than cell commitment: early (0-48 h) exposure to PMA (during chondrocytic commitment in vitro) had little inhibitory effect on the staining index, whereas, exposure from 49-96 h (presumably post-commitment) and 0-96 h had moderate and strong inhibitory effects, respectively, on cartilage synthesis. Further research on the phorbol/Bryostatin I interaction should add to our knowledge of the control processes involved in tumor promotion and cell differentiation.     

Stimulation of prostaglandin E2 production by phorbol esters and epidermal growth factor in porcine thyroid cells

Effects of phorbol esters and epidermal growth factor (EGF) on prostaglandin E2 production by cultured porcine thyroid cells were examined. Both phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) and EGF stimulated prostaglandin E2 production by the cells in dose related fashion. PMA stimulated prostaglandin E2 production over fifty-fold with the dose of 10(-7) M compared with control. EGF (10(-7) M) also stimulated it about ten-fold. The ED50 values of PMA and EGF were respectively around 1 X 10(-9) M and 5 X 10(-10) M. Thyroid stimulating hormone (TSH), however, did not stimulate prostaglandin E2 production from 1 to 24-h incubation. The release of radioactivity from [3H]-arachidonic acid prelabeled cells was also stimulated by PMA and EGF, but not by TSH. These results indicate that both PMA and EGF are potent stimulators of prostaglandin E2 production, associated with the activity to stimulate arachidonic acid release in porcine thyroid cells.     

Enhancement of thrombin- and ionomycin-stimulated prostacyclin and platelet-activating factor production in cultured endothelial cells by a tumor-promoting phorbol ester

Tumor-promoting phorbol esters such as 4 beta-phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate (PMA) have been shown to act synergistically with Ca2+ ionophores in cell activation, including stimulation of arachidonic acid metabolism. The effects of PMA on unstimulated and Ca2+ ionophore- or thrombin-stimulated PGI2 and platelet-activating factor (PAF) production in cultured bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEC) and human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVEC) were investigated. Incubation of BAEC or HUVEC for 5-10 min with 100 nM PMA alone slightly increased basal PGI2 production. PGI2 production was rapidly stimulated in BAEC and HUVEC treated with the Ca2+ ionophore ionomycin. Preincubation of BAEC or HUVEC with 100 nM PMA for 5-10 min followed by ionomycin for up to 60 min enhanced PGI2 production up to 2.5-fold. Pretreatment with 100 nM PMA for 5 min also caused a 2-fold enhancement of thrombin-stimulated (1 U/ml) PGI2 production in HUVEC. The production of other prostaglandins, PGF2 alpha, PGE2, and PGD2, was also enhanced. In contrast, PMA had no effect on PGI2 synthesized directly from exogenous arachidonic acid or PGH2. The inactive phorbol ester 4 alpha-phorbol 12,13-didecanoate was without effect. Since the biosyntheses of both PGI2 and PAF share a common first step, the hydrolysis of their respective phospholipid precursors by phospholipase A2, we investigated whether PMA preincubation could also enhance PAF biosynthesis. Incubation of HUVEC with 100 nM PMA alone had a negligible effect on PAF production. However, thrombin-stimulated (1 U/ml) PAF production was enhanced 2.6-fold by preincubation with 100 nM PMA. The protein kinase C inhibitors H-7 and staurosporine ablated the enhancing effect of PMA on thrombin-stimulated PGI2 and PAF biosynthesis. These results demonstrate that PMA can significantly alter the production of PGI2 and PAF in vascular endothelial cells, and suggest that protein kinase C activation modulates phospholipase A2 activity in this cell type.     

Prostaglandin E2 rather than lymphocyte-activating factor produced by activated human mononuclear cells stimulates increases in murine thymocyte cAMP

Culture supernatants (SUPS) of endotoxin (LPS)-activated human mononuclear cells (MNL) stimulated greater production of cAMP by thymocytes than by spleen cells of C3H/HeJ or nude ($\text{nu}\text{nu}$) mice. Similarly, the addition of prostaglandin E₂ (PGE₂) stimulated higher levels of cAMP in thymocytes and progressively lower levels in spleen cells from C3H/HeJ mice and $\text{nu}\text{nu}$ spleen cells, respectively. Partial purification on Bio-Gel P100 of the LPS-induced MNL SUPS yielded peaks of thymocyte proliferative activity characteristic of lymphocyte activation factor (LAF) but these fractions failed to stimulate cAMP levels in thymocytes. Moreover, MNL SUPS induced with LPS in the presence of indomethacin retained their LAF activity but no longer increased thymocyte cAMP levels. Radioimmunoassay of the SUPS for PGE₂ revealed significantly higher levels of PGE₂ in the media of those MNL cultures stimulated by LPS than when stimulated by phorbol myristic acetate, phytohemagglutin, or extracted cell wall fraction of Actinomyces viscosus. Thus, PGE₂ is produced by human MNL and may exert considerable immunoregulatory effects mediated by elevation of lymphocyte cAMP levels.     

Inhibitory action of phorbol myristate acetate on histamine secretion and polyphosphoinositide turnover induced by compound 48/80 in mast cells

Rat peritoneal mast cells which had been preincubated with phorbol myristate acetate (PMA, 10 - 100 ng/ml) for 5 min did not elicit the full histamine secretion induced by a potent secretagogue, compound 48/80. Furthermore, this PMA-treatment was found to inhibit the agonist-mediated hydrolysis of phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate (PIP2) in [32P]labeled cells. However, it was also observed that the level of [32P]PIP2 was markedly reduced by 5 min-incubation with PMA. This suggests the enhanced hydrolysis of PIP2 by PMA which was reflected in a greater formation of inositol trisphosphate (IP3). These observations indicate that the formation of IP3 may not be profoundly related to secretory response in mast cells.