Life Cycle Performance of Cellulosic Ethanol and Corn Ethanol from a Retrofitted Dry Mill Corn Ethanol Plant

This study conducts a life cycle assessment of a simulated dry mill corn ethanol facility in California’s Central Valley retrofitted to also produce ethanol from corn stover, a cellulosic feedstock. The assessment examines three facility designs, all producing corn ethanol and wet distiller’s grains and solubles as a co-product: a baseline facility with no cellulosic retrofit, a facility retrofitted with a small capacity for stover feedstock, and a facility retrofitted for a large capacity of stover feedstock. Corn grain is supplied by rail from the Midwest, while stover is sourced from in-state farms and delivered by truck. Two stover feedstock supply scenarios are considered, testing harvest rates at 25 or 40 % of stover mass. Allocation is required to separate impacts attributable to co-products. Additional scenarios are explored to assess the effect of co-product allocation methods on life cycle assessment results for the two fuel products, corn ethanol and stover ethanol. The assessment tracks greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions, energy consumption, criteria air pollutants, and direct water consumption. The GHG intensity of corn ethanol produced from the three facility designs range between 61.3 and 68.9 g CO₂e/MJ, which includes 19.8 g CO₂e/MJ from indirect land use change for Midwestern corn grain. The GHG intensity of cellulosic ethanol varies from 44.1 to 109.2 g CO₂e/MJ, and 14.6 to 32.1 g CO₂e/MJ in the low and high stover capacity cases, respectively. Total energy input ranges between 0.60 and 0.71 MJ/MJ for corn ethanol and 0.13 to 2.29 MJ/MJ for stover ethanol. This variability is the result of the stover supply scenarios (a function of harvest rate) and co-product allocation decisions.     

Policy Implications of Allocation Methods in the Life Cycle Analysis of Integrated Corn and Corn Stover Ethanol Production

A biorefinery may produce multiple fuels from more than one feedstock. The ability of these fuels to qualify as one of the four types of biofuels under the US Renewable Fuel Standard and to achieve a low carbon intensity score under California’s Low Carbon Fuel Standard can be strongly influenced by the approach taken to their life cycle analysis (LCA). For example, in facilities that may co-produce corn grain and corn stover ethanol, the ethanol production processes can share the combined heat and power (CHP) that is produced from the lignin and liquid residues from stover ethanol production. We examine different LCA approaches to corn grain and stover ethanol production considering different approaches to CHP treatment. In the baseline scenario, CHP meets the energy demands of stover ethanol production first, with additional heat and electricity generated sent to grain ethanol production. The resulting greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions for grain and stover ethanol are 57 and 25 g-CO₂eq/MJ, respectively, corresponding to a 40 and 74 % reduction compared to the GHG emissions of gasoline. We illustrate that emissions depend on allocation of burdens of CHP production and corn farming, along with the facility capacities. Co-product handling techniques can strongly influence LCA results and should therefore be transparently documented.     

Multilocation Corn Stover Harvest Effects on Crop Yields and Nutrient Removal

Corn (Zea mays L.) stover was identified as an important feedstock for cellulosic bioenergy production because of the extensive area upon which the crop is already grown. This report summarizes 239 site-years of field research examining effects of zero, moderate, and high stover removal rates at 36 sites in seven different states. Grain and stover yields from all sites as well as N, P, and K removal from 28 sites are summarized for nine longitude and six latitude bands, two tillage practices (conventional vs no tillage), two stover-harvest methods (machine vs calculated), and two crop rotations {continuous corn (maize) vs corn/soybean [Glycine max (L.) Merr.]}. Mean grain yields ranged from 5.0 to 12.0 Mg ha^?1 (80 to 192 bu ac^?1). Harvesting an average of 3.9 or 7.2 Mg ha^?1 (1.7 or 3.2 tons ac^?1) of the corn stover resulted in a slight increase in grain yield at 57 and 51 % of the sites, respectively. Average no-till grain yields were significantly lower than with conventional tillage when stover was not harvested, but not when it was collected. Plant samples collected between physiological maturity and combine harvest showed that compared to not harvesting stover, N, P, and K removal was increased by 24, 2.7, and 31 kg ha^?1, respectively, with moderate (3.9 Mg ha^?1) harvest and by 47, 5.5, and 62 kg ha^?1, respectively, with high (7.2 Mg ha^?1) removal. This data will be useful for verifying simulation models and available corn stover feedstock projections, but is too variable for planning site-specific stover harvest.     

Impact of Harvest Equipment on Ash Variability of Baled Corn Stover Biomass for Bioenergy

Cost-effective conversion of agricultural residues for renewable energy hinges not only on the material’s quality but also the biorefinery’s ability to reliably measure quality specifications. The ash content of biomass is one such specification, influencing pretreatment and disposal costs for the conversion facility and the overall value of a delivered lot of biomass. The biomass harvest process represents a primary pathway for accumulation of soil-derived ash within baled material. In this work, the influence of five collection techniques on the total ash content and variability of ash content within baled corn stover in southwest Kansas is discussed. The equipment tested included a mower for cutting the corn stover stubble, a basket rake, wheel rake, or shred flail to gather the stover, and a mixed or uniform in-feed baler for final collection. The results showed mean ash content to range from 11.5 to 28.2 % depending on operational choice. Resulting impacts on feedstock costs for a biochemical conversion process range from $5.38 to $22.30 Mg^?1 based on the loss of convertible dry matter and ash disposal costs. Collection techniques that minimized soil contact (shred flail or nonmowed stubble) were shown to prevent excessive ash contamination, whereas more aggressive techniques (mowing and use of a wheel rake) caused greater soil disturbance and entrainment within the final baled material. Material sampling and testing were shown to become more difficult as within-bale ash variability increased, creating uncertainty around feedstock quality and the associated costs of ash mitigation.     

青贮饲料的研究、发展及现状

我国从上世纪50年代开始对青贮饲料技术进行研究和推广,但受当时生产水平和经济条件等因素制约,工作多属于生产性试探,对青贮饲料发酵机制,二次发酵问题及防腐措施等方面的研究甚少。在我国,主要以利用黄秸秆为饲料,而鲜青贮饲料的利用和推广尚有一定困难。     

Nutrient Removal as a Function of Corn Stover Cutting Height and Cob Harvest

One-pass harvest equipment has been developed to collect corn (Zea mays L.) grain, stover, and cobs that can be used as bioenergy feedstock. Nutrients removed in these feedstocks have soil fertility implication and affect feedstock quality. The study objectives were to quantify nutrient concentrations and potential removal as a function of cutting height, plant organ, and physiological stage. Plant samples were collected in 10-cm increments at seven diverse geographic locations at two maturities and analyzed for multiple elements. At grain harvest, nutrient concentration averaged 5.5 g?N kg^?1, 0.5 g?P kg^?1, and 6.2 g?K kg^?1 in cobs, 7.5 g?N kg^?1, 1.2 g?P kg^?1, and 8.7 g?K kg^?1 in the above-ear stover fraction, and 6.4 g?N kg^?1, 1.0 g?P kg^?1, and 10.7 g?K kg^?1 in the below-ear stover fraction (stover fractions exclude cobs). The average collective cost to replace N, P, and K was $11.66 Mg^?1 for cobs, $17.59 Mg^?1 for above-ear stover, and $18.11 Mg^?1 for below-ear stover. If 3 Mg ha^?1 of above-ear stover fraction plus 1 Mg of cobs are harvested, an average N, P, and K replacement cost was estimated at $64 ha^?1. Collecting cobs or above-ear stover fraction may provide a higher quality feedstock while removing fewer nutrients compared to whole stover removal. This information will enable producers to balance soil fertility by adjusting fertilizer rates and to sustain soil quality by predicting C removal for different harvest scenarios. It also provides elemental information to the bioenergy industry.     

Influence of Corn Residue Harvest Management on Grain,Stover, and Energy Yields

Economic, environmental, and energy independence issues are contributing to rising fossil fuel prices, petroleum supply concerns, and a growing interest in biomass feedstocks as renewable energy sources. Potential feedstocks include perennial grasses, timber, and annual grain crops with our focus being on corn (Zea mays L.) stover. A plot-scale study evaluating stover removal was initiated in 2008 on a South Carolina Coastal Plain Coxville/Rains–Goldsboro–Lynchburg soil association site. In addition to grain and stover yields, carbon balance, greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and soil quality impact reported elsewhere in this issue, variation in gross energy distribution within various plant fractions — whole plant, below ear shank (bottom), above ear shank (top), cob, as well as leaves and stems of the bottom and top portions (n _{(part, year)}?=?20) was measured with an isoperibol calorimeter. Stalks from above the ear shank were the most energy dense, averaging 18.8 MJ/kg db, and when combined with other plant parts from above the ear shank, the entire top half was more energy dense than the bottom half — 18.4 versus 18.2 MJ/kg db. Gross energy content of the whole plant, including the cob, averaged 18.28?±?0.76 MJ/kg db. Over the 4 years, partial to total removal (i.e., 25 % to 100 %) of above-ground plant biomass could supply between 30 and 168 GJ/ha depending upon annual rainfall. At 168 GJ/ha, the quantity of corn stover biomass (whole plant) available in a 3,254-km² area (32 km radius) around the study site could potentially support a 500-MW power plant.     

Modeling Water Quality Impacts of Cellulosic Biofuel Production from Corn Silage

The growing interest in the use of alternative biomass products for fuel production requires a thorough understanding of the environmental impacts associated with the production of these bioenergy crops. Corn silage is a potential bioenergy feedstock; however, water quality implications for its utilization as a biofeedstock are not understood. The objective of this work was to evaluate water quality impacts associated with corn silage production. The GLEAMS-NAPRA model was used to quantify runoff, percolation, erosion, nitrate-nitrogen, total phosphorus, and pesticide losses attributed to the production of corn silage with and without winter cover crops for two tillage options (conventional tillage and no till) on three Indiana soils. Results revealed that corn silage would generate greater annual surface runoff (1 to 6 mm) and percolation (1 to 20 mm) compared with corn grain and grain plus stover cropping systems. Silage/winter cereal rye cover crop reduced annual surface runoff and percolation and was strongly influenced by increases in evapotranspiration, when compared with continuous silage production. Silage managed with winter cereal rye cover crop influenced water quality by reducing annual nitrate losses with runoff from a low of 14 % to a high of 27 %, with relatively no effect because of tillage management. No-till practice on silage system produced significantly greater phosphorus losses (7.46 to 18.07 kg/ha) in comparison to silage/cereal rye, corn grain, and grain plus stover harvest (p?<?0.05). For every 1,000 l of ethanol produced from corn silage, erosion losses ranged from 0.07 to 0.95 t/ha for conventional tillage practices and from 0.06 to 0.83 t/ha for no-till practices. The feasibility of cropping systems such as corn silage/cereal rye could contribute to large-scale biomass production but should be further investigated.     

Biomass and Cellulosic Ethanol Production of Forage Sorghum Under Limited Water Conditions

This study presents results from a 2-year evaluation of biomass and cellulosic ethanol (EtOH) production potential of forage sorghum (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) cultivars differing in brown midrib trait (i.e., bmr12) under dryland (no irrigation) and limited irrigation (2.88 mm?day^?1; subsurface drip) in the semiarid Southern High Plains of the USA. Commercial cultivar Sorghum Partners 1990 (SP 1990, conventional non-bmr) produced significantly more biomass (29–62 %) than a bmr12 cultivar PaceSetter bmr (PS bmr) under irrigated and dryland conditions during both years of this study. However, PS bmr biomass had higher cellulosic EtOH conversion efficiency than SP 1990 in both years according to simultaneous saccharification and fermentation analysis. Irrigation resulted in 26–49 % more biomass and 28–72 % more cellulosic EtOH production during both growing seasons, indicating that limited irrigation had favorable effects on both biomass and biofuel production. In the first year, when precipitation was below average, both cultivars produced similar amounts of cellulosic EtOH. During the second year, when precipitation was above average, higher biomass production of SP 1990 resulted in 28 % higher cellulosic EtOH production than PS bmr when averaged across both irrigated and dryland conditions. The large range of cellulosic EtOH production (1,600 to 3,380 L?ha^?1) during the 2 years of this study was primarily driven by differences in water availability that resulted from precipitation and irrigation. Our findings indicates that chemical composition and biomass yield potential of sorghum cultivars are critical factors that affect biomass and biofuel production under limited water conditions.     

纤维素乙醇基因工程研究进展

天然微生物代谢木质纤维素生成乙醇的途径和能力各不相同,通过基因工程的手段,将不同菌种的优良基因加以重组和改造,提高乙醇产率及降低成本,是当前纤维素乙醇研究的重要课题。综述了已发现的能够代谢纤维素产乙醇的天然微生物的种类、特性、代谢机理及构建重组菌株的方法和研究进展,并对基因工程开发纤维素乙醇工程菌的前景和存在的问题进行分析。     

Spatially Explicit Life Cycle Analysis of Cellulosic Ethanol Production Scenarios in Southwestern Michigan

Modeling the life cycle of fuel pathways for cellulosic ethanol (CE) can help identify logistical barriers and anticipated impacts for the emerging commercial CE industry. Such models contain high amounts of variability, primarily due to the varying nature of agricultural production but also because of limitations in the availability of data at the local scale, resulting in the typical practice of using average values. In this study, 12 spatially explicit, cradle-to-refinery gate CE pathways were developed that vary by feedstock (corn stover, switchgrass, and Miscanthus), nitrogen application rate (higher, lower), pretreatment method (ammonia fiber expansion [AFEX], dilute acid), and co-product treatment method (mass allocation, sub-division), in which feedstock production was modeled at the watershed scale over a nine-county area in Southwestern Michigan. When comparing feedstocks, the model showed that corn stover yielded higher global warming potential (GWP), acidification potential (AP), and eutrophication potential (EP) than the perennial feedstocks of switchgrass and Miscanthus, on an average per area basis. Full life cycle results per MJ of produced ethanol demonstrated more mixed results, with corn stover-derived CE scenarios that use sub-division as a co-product treatment method yielding similarly favorable outcomes as switchgrass- and Miscanthus-derived CE scenarios. Variability was found to be greater between feedstocks than watersheds. Additionally, scenarios using dilute acid pretreatment had more favorable results than those using AFEX pretreatment.     

加快我国纤维乙醇产业发展的建议

随着我国汽车保有量的不断增长,机动车尾气排放成为影响空气质量的重要因素之一。燃料乙醇具有绿色、环保、可再生的资源优势,能够促进燃烧、减少排放污染。本文从国家能源安全、粮食安全、农民增收和环境污染等多方面综述了发展纤维乙醇产业的重要性和必要性,同时结合当前纤维乙醇产业的发展现状对纤维乙醇产业政策提出了建议。     

The Feasibility of Producing Adequate Feedstock for Year-Round Cellulosic Ethanol Production in an Intensive Agricultural Fuelshed

To date, cellulosic ethanol production has not been commercialized in the United States. However, government mandates aimed at increasing second-generation biofuel production could spur exploratory development in the cellulosic ethanol industry. We conducted an in-depth analysis of the fuelshed surrounding a starch-based ethanol plant near York, Nebraska that has the potential for cellulosic ethanol production. To assess the feasibility of supplying adequate biomass for year-round cellulosic ethanol production from residual maize (Zea mays) stover and bioenergy switchgrass (Panicum virgatum) within a 40-km road network service area of the existing ethanol plant, we identified ～14,000 ha of marginally productive cropland within the service area suitable for conversion from annual rowcrops to switchgrass and ～132,000 ha of maize-enrolled cropland from which maize stover could be collected. Annual maize stover and switchgrass biomass supplies within the 40-km service area could range between 429,000 and 752,000 metric tons (mT). Approximately 140–250 million liters (l) of cellulosic ethanol could be produced, rivaling the current 208 million l annual starch-based ethanol production capacity of the plant. We conclude that sufficient quantities of biomass could be produced from maize stover and switchgrass near the plant to support year-round cellulosic ethanol production at current feedstock yields, sustainable removal rates and bioconversion efficiencies. Modifying existing starch-based ethanol plants in intensive agricultural fuelsheds could increase ethanol output, return marginally productive cropland to perennial vegetation, and remove maize stover from productive cropland to meet feedstock demand.     

Evaluation of Simultaneous Saccharification and Ethanol Fermentation of Undetoxified Steam-Exploded Corn Stover by Saccharomyces cerevisiae Y5

Toxin-tolerant yeast strains that produce high ethanol yield are inevitably requited for cost-effective ethanol production from undetoxified steam-exploded corn stover. To verify the ethanol-producing capability of the strain Saccharomyces cerevisiae Y5 developed in our laboratory, simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of undetoxified steam-exploded corn stover with solids loading of 30 % (w/v) was carried out in different-sized flasks and an automatic fermenter. After 96 h, the ethanol concentrations had reached 50, 47.8, and 47.5 g/L in the 100-mL flask, 3,000-mL flask, and 5-L automatic fermenter, respectively. The experiment demonstrates that ethanol production from undetoxified steam-exploded corn stover using S. cerevisiae Y5 simplifies the production process, reduces equipment investment and water consumption, and generates highly concentrated ethanol. S. cerevisiae Y5 is a promising strain that could reduce the cost of producing ethanol from steam-exploded corn stover.     

生物制氢——能源、资源、环境与经济可持续发展策略

人类面临能源危机、资源短缺、环境污染的严峻挑战,开发新的能源,合理利用资源并保护生态环境势在必行。氢能具有清洁、高效、可再生的特点,是未来重要的新能源物质。生物制氢技术利用可再生资源,特别是可利用工农业有机废弃物产氢,效率高,能耗低,污染少,成本低,具有巨大的发展潜力。本文简要阐述生物制氢技术及其发展状况,提出我国发展生物制氢技术,实现能源、资源、环境与经济可持续发展的政策建议。     

Direct and Efficient Production of Ethanol from Cellulosic Material with a Yeast Strain Displaying Cellulolytic Enzymes

For direct and efficient ethanol production from cellulosic materials, we constructed a novel cellulose-degrading yeast strain by genetically codisplaying two cellulolytic enzymes on the cell surface of Saccharomyces cerevisiae. By using a cell surface engineering system based on α-agglutinin, endoglucanase II (EGII) from the filamentous fungus Trichoderma reesei QM9414 was displayed on the cell surface as a fusion protein containing an RGSHis6 (Arg-Gly-Ser-His₆) peptide tag in the N-terminal region. EGII activity was detected in the cell pellet fraction but not in the culture supernatant. Localization of the RGSHis6-EGII-α-agglutinin fusion protein on the cell surface was confirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy. The yeast strain displaying EGII showed significantly elevated hydrolytic activity toward barley β-glucan, a linear polysaccharide composed of an average of 1,200 glucose residues. In a further step, EGII and β-glucosidase 1 from Aspergillus aculeatus No. F-50 were codisplayed on the cell surface. The resulting yeast cells could grow in synthetic medium containing β-glucan as the sole carbon source and could directly ferment 45 g of β-glucan per liter to produce 16.5 g of ethanol per liter within about 50 h. The yield in terms of grams of ethanol produced per gram of carbohydrate utilized was 0.48 g/g, which corresponds to 93.3% of the theoretical yield. This result indicates that efficient simultaneous saccharification and fermentation of cellulose to ethanol are carried out by a recombinant yeast cells displaying cellulolytic enzymes.     

Lactic Acid Production from Pretreated Hydrolysates of Corn Stover by a Newly Developed Bacillus coagulans Strain

An inhibitor-tolerance strain, Bacillus coagulans GKN316, was developed through atmospheric and room temperature plasma (ARTP) mutation and evolution experiment in condensed dilute-acid hydrolysate (CDH) of corn stover. The fermentabilities of other hydrolysates with B. coagulans GKN316 and the parental strain B. coagulans NL01 were assessed. When using condensed acid-catalyzed steam-exploded hydrolysate (CASEH), condensed acid-catalyzed liquid hot water hydrolysate (CALH) and condensed acid-catalyzed sulfite hydrolysate (CASH) as substrates, the concentration of lactic acid reached 45.39, 16.83, and 18.71 g/L by B. coagulans GKN316, respectively. But for B. coagulans NL01, only CASEH could be directly fermented to produce 15.47 g/L lactic acid. The individual inhibitory effect of furfural, 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF), vanillin, syringaldehyde and p-hydroxybenzaldehyde (pHBal) on xylose utilization by B. coagulans GKN316 was also studied. The strain B. coagulans GKN316 could effectively convert these toxic inhibitors to the less toxic corresponding alcohols in situ. These results suggested that B. coagulans GKN316 was well suited to production of lactic acid from undetoxified lignocellulosic hydrolysates.     

Characteristics of Corn Stover Pretreated with Liquid Hot Water and Fed-Batch Semi-Simultaneous Saccharification and Fermentation for Bioethanol Production

Corn stover is a promising feedstock for bioethanol production because of its abundant availability in China. To obtain higher ethanol concentration and higher ethanol yield, liquid hot water (LHW) pretreatment and fed-batch semi-simultaneous saccharification and fermentation (S-SSF) were used to enhance the enzymatic digestibility of corn stover and improve bioconversion of cellulose to ethanol. The results show that solid residues from LHW pretreatment of corn stover can be effectively converted into ethanol at severity factors ranging from 3.95 to 4.54, and the highest amount of xylan removed was approximately 89%. The ethanol concentrations of 38.4 g/L and 39.4 g/L as well as ethanol yields of 78.6% and 79.7% at severity factors of 3.95 and 4.54, respectively, were obtained by fed-batch S-SSF in an optimum conditions (initial substrate consistency of 10%, and 6.1% solid residues added into system at the prehydrolysis time of 6 h). The changes in surface morphological structure, specific surface area, pore volume and diameter of corn stover subjected to LHW process were also analyzed for interpreting the possible improvement mechanism.     

Soil Greenhouse Gas Emissions and Carbon Dynamics of a No-Till,Corn-Based Cellulosic Ethanol Production System

Crop residues like corn (Zea mays L.) stover perform important functions that promote soil health and provide ecosystem services that influence agricultural sustainability and global biogeochemical cycles. We evaluated the effect of corn stover removal from a no-till, corn-soybean (Glycine max (L.) Merr) rotation on soil greenhouse gas (GHG; CO₂, N₂O, CH₄) fluxes, crop yields, and soil organic carbon (SOC) dynamics. We conducted a 4-year study using replicated field plots managed with two levels of corn stover removal (none; 55 % stover removal) for four complete crop cycles prior to initiation of ground surface gas flux measurements. Corn and soybean yields were not affected by stover removal with yields averaging 7.28 Mg ha^?1 for corn and 2.64 Mg ha^?1 for soybean. Corn stover removal treatment did not affect soil GHG fluxes from the corn phase; however, the treatment did significantly increase (107 %, P?=?0.037) N₂O fluxes during the soybean phase. The plots were a net source of CH₄ (～0.5 kg CH₄-C ha^?1 year^?1 average of all treatments and crops) during the generally wet study duration. Soil organic carbon stocks increased in both treatments during the 4-year study (initiated following 8 years of stover removal), with significantly higher SOC accumulation in the control plots compared to plots with corn stover removal (0–15 cm, P?=?0.048). Non-CO₂ greenhouse gas emissions (945 kg CO₂-eq ha^?1 year^?1) were roughly half of SOC (0–30 cm) gains with corn stover removal (1.841 Mg CO₂-eq ha^?1 year^?1) indicating that no-till practices greatly improve the viability of biennial corn stover harvesting under local soil-climatic conditions. Our results also show that repeated corn stover harvesting may increase N loss (as N₂O) from fields and thereby contribute to GHG production and loss of potential plant nutrients.