无脊椎动物的比较发育免疫

高等动物是由低等动物经过一个漫长的历程逐渐进化来的,其免疫机制也是伴随这一过程逐渐发展和完善起来的。免疫的进化不能象身体结构的进人线样可被化石记录焉,只能通过对现存动物的免疫机制、免疫组织及器官的个体发育和系统发育进行比较研究来搞清。近年来比较免疫学有了突飞猛进的发展,涉及的动物也越来越广泛,本文就已掌握的资料,对无脊椎动物的免疫机制、免疫组织及器官的个体发育和系统发育进行了比较和综述,从中可以看出,免疫机制普遍存在于无脊椎动物中,其免疫主要以吞噬作用、凝集作用和抗菌作用为主;免疫特异性较弱,细胞免疫的特异性远较体液免疫的特异性程度高;在较低等的腔肠动物就已出现了免疫记忆和移植排斥反应,并且在其后的无脊椎动物中广泛存在;凝集素广泛存在于无脊椎动物中,很可能在免疫识别甚至免疫记忆中扮演重要角色;无脊椎动物的免疫是随进化而逐渐加强的。     

无脊椎动物体液免疫研究进展

无脊椎动物的体液免疫机制近年来逐渐得到重视。无脊椎动物缺乏真正的抗体和特异性的免疫细胞,机体防御反应依靠非特异的先天免疫结构。无脊椎动物的自然免疫是由细胞免疫和体液免疫共同完成的。阐明无脊椎动物的体液免疫机制对于研究免疫系统的进化有重要作用,同时对于无脊椎动物的资源开发与利用有积极的促进作用,本文仅对近年来无脊椎动物体液免疫机制的研究进展作一综述。     

蓝尾蝾螈肢体再生的研究

再生现象在动物中普遍存在,一般认为在动物个体发育和系统发育过程中,再生能力有逐渐减弱的趋势,这与组织和器官分化程度有关(Noble 1931,洛巴沙夫1953)。不少资料报道两栖动物的再生能力很强,尤其是     

天然免疫进化中的无脊椎动物Toll样受体

Toll样受体（Toll-like receptors,TLR）（或Toll）通过与各种病原相关分子模式（pathogen associated molecular patterns,PAMP）的识别和特异结合,广泛参与各种天然免疫应答,目前已在线虫类、软体动物、节肢动物、棘皮动物及低等脊索类的后口动物等多种无脊椎动物中发现大量的TLR及同源蛋白.TLR在进化中高度保守,其功能随着动物进化中免疫机能的复杂化而多样化.这些研究成果将会不断加深对无脊椎动物天然免疫系统的起源、进化路线及其信号转导机制的认识.     

Notch的结构、功能和相关信号通路

Notch是广泛存在于细胞表面介导细胞间信号传递的一类高度保守的受体蛋白。Notch信号通路是通过细胞间相互作用来调节生物体生长发育的一个十分保守的信号通路。Notch信号通路在脊椎动物和无脊椎动物的发育过程中,对细胞命运的决定、神经系统的发育、器官的形成及体节的发生都有重要的作用。特别是在免疫系统和肿瘤发生中也起着极为重要的作用。目前,Notch信号已经成为发育生物学、细胞生物学、免疫学及血液学等多个领域的研究热点之一。本文就Notch信号通路的组成、调节作用机制及该通路与个体发育之间的联系作一综述。     

动物听觉器官的进化

在系统进化的过程中 ,动物对声波振动的感觉逐步形成了专一的听觉感受器官。听觉器官最早出现于无脊椎动物的节肢动物 ,但节肢动物听觉感受器与感受触觉器没有明显的界限。随着生活环境的改变 ,水生的鱼类出现了内耳 ,在从水栖到陆栖的过渡中出现了中耳 ,内耳也逐渐复杂化形成了原始的基底膜 ,鸟类和哺乳动物的听觉器官达到了发育的最高点 ,也是所有感觉器官中最为复杂的器官之一。听觉在很多方面都起着重要的作用 ,例如逃避捕食者、寻觅配偶和相互交流等 ,对人类来说听觉是语言发展的关键。1　无脊椎动物的听感觉器官无脊椎动物中只有节肢…     

海鞘再生的细胞学过程及其调控机制研究进展与展望

再生现象在后生动物中普遍存在,但不同物种的再生能力存在显著差别.无脊椎动物如水螅和涡虫等再生能力较强,具有部分组织或细胞即可再生出一个完整个体的能力,被称为整体再生;而脊椎动物的再生能力相对较弱,局限在某些特定器官或身体结构,被称为部分再生,如蝾螈的附肢.海鞘作为进化上介于无脊椎动物与脊椎动物之间的尾索动物,既包括具备...     

棘皮动物免疫学研究进展

棘皮动物属原始后口动物、无脊椎动物的最高等类群,它处于由无脊椎动物向脊椎动物开始分支进化的阶段．研究棘皮动物的免疫功能和作用机理,对从比较免疫学角度探讨动物免疫系统进化过程有承前启后的重要意义．因此,有必要对棘皮动物的免疫学研究进展作一个较全面的综述,并理清未来的研究热点和方向．棘皮动物与其他无脊椎动物一样具有先天性免疫系统,但未发现脊椎动物所具有的获得性免疫．其免疫应答是由参与免疫反应的效应细胞——体腔细胞和多种体液免疫因子共同介导的．比较免疫学分析表明,棘皮动物存在脊椎动物补体系统的替代途径和凝集素途径,但未发现经典途径和明确的终端途径．棘皮动物先天性免疫系统存在数量庞大的基因家族．今后应加强对未知免疫相关基因、蛋白质、信号传导途径及效应分子的研究,回答免疫系统的起源、功能和进化等问题．     

水生无脊椎动物中的免疫球蛋白超家族

适应性免疫一直被认为是脊椎动物特有的免疫机制,然而近年来许多研究表明 ,无脊椎动物体内也存在许多在结构或功能上与脊椎动物适应性免疫分子类似的免 疫成分. 免疫球蛋白超家族是适应性免疫的重要组成部分,本文主要综述近年来关 于水生无脊椎动物中肌联蛋白、唐氏综合症细胞黏着分子、特异性凝集素、几丁质 结合蛋白和185/133基因家族以及含有V和C结构域的蛋白等免疫球蛋白超家族成员研 究进展,这有助于深入理解无脊椎动物的免疫系统并揭示脊椎动物适应性免疫起源 与进化.     

基因、进化与生理功能多样性2009海内外学术研讨会暨中国生理学会第七届比较生理学会议纪要

由中国生理学会比较生理学专业委员会主办,辽宁师范大学承办的基因、进化与生理功能多样性2009海内外学术研讨会暨中国生理学会第七届比较生理学会议于2009年7月17至20日在美丽的海滨城市大连圆满召开。会议就模式动物和特色动物生理功能的细胞和分子机制、重要生理功能的系统发育、适应和进化机制以及动物行为的遗传、适应和进化机制等比较生理学领域的重点和热点问题进行广泛深入的交流。今年恰逢我国生理学前辈赵以炳先生（1909-1987）诞辰100周年,这次会议还邀请海内外著名学者隆重举行了赵以炳先生纪念学术报告。     

Marine invertebrate genome sequences and our evolving understanding of animal immunity

Animal immunity is under intense evolutionary pressure, and the mechanisms that carry out recognition and elimination of pathogens are among the most rapidly evolving genetic systems. It is increasingly apparent that this has led to the emergence of novel molecular mechanisms not only among vertebrates, where immunity is by far best characterized, but also across invertebrate phyla. This propensity for rapid divergence has been a serious obstacle for progress in the field of comparative immunology. The variety of recent genome sequences from marine invertebrates representing new phyla offers a means to move forward in this area. Genome sequences provide much improved sensitivity for the detection of gene homologs and a framework for unbiased computational and experimental searches for novel immune mediators. Furthermore, new genomes now offer a more complete and unbiased view of immunity across bilaterian phyla, especially among deuterostomes. In this review we summarize these findings with particular attention toward immunity in Strongylocentrotus purpuratus, the purple sea urchin, and outline the changing perspective on the evolution of deuterostome immunity.     

Life is a huge compromise: Is the complexity of the vertebrate immune-neuroendocrine system an advantage or the price to pay?

Recent advances in comparative immunology have established that invertebrates produce hypervariable molecules probably related to immunity, suggesting the possibility of raising a specific immune response. “Priming” and “tailoring” are terms now often associated with the invertebrate innate immunity. Comparative immunologists contributed to eliminate the idea of a static immune system in invertebrates, making necessary to re-consider the evolutive meaning of immunological memory of vertebrates. If the anticipatory immune system represents a maximally efficient immune system, why can it be observed only in vertebrates, especially in consideration that molecular hypervariability exists also in invertebrates? Using well-established theories concerning the evolution of the vertebrate immunity as theoretical basis we analyze from an Eco-immunology-based perspective why a memory-based immune system may have represented an evolutive advantage for jawed vertebrates. We hypothesize that for cold-blooded vertebrates memory represents a complimentary component that flanks the robust and fundamental innate immunity. Conversely, immunological memory has become indispensable and fully exploited in warm-blooded vertebrates, due to their stable inner environment and high metabolic rate, respectively.     

Comparative Immunology

Comparative Immunology includes an evolutionary approach toimmunity revealing the immune system as widespread and necessaryfor survival. Although many immunology textbooks and coursesare often oriented solely toward medicine orallied professions,comparative immunology is a unique beginning for advanced undergraduatestudents of biology, zoology, and immunology. A more biologicapproach to immune competence causes mammalian immunologiststo view comparative immunology as an introduction to numerousectothermic vertebrates and invertebrates. Such exotic animalsare sources of meaningful facts important for anyone viewingsignificant breakthroughs in immunology in phylogenetic perspective.Animals preserve their unique individuality by distinguishingbetween self and non-self to protect against infection and possibleextinction. The earliest beginnings of immune reactions arebest exemplified among the invertebrates by recognition, phagocytosis,graft rejection accompanied by specificity and weak memory,and the induction of agglutinins and lectins. Although vertebratesshare these same responses, the main differences include moreextensive evidence of specificity and memory and the uniquecapacity to synthesize immunoglobulins. Acknowledging the problemof recognition as the common basis for the immune response,certain members of the Ig superfamily, notably Thy-1 and ß₂-microglobulin,will help our attempts to define evolutionary pressures thatcaused the development of immunity.     

The hydroid Hydractinia: a versatile, informative cnidarian representative

The Cnidaria represent the most ancient eumetazoan phylum. Members of this group possess typical animal cells and tissues such as sensory cells, nerve cells, muscle cells and epithelia. Due to their unique phylogenetic position, cnidarians have traditionally been used as a reference group in various comparative studies. We propose the colonial marine hydroid, Hydractinia, as a convenient, versatile platform for basic and applied research in developmental biology, reproduction, immunology, environmental studies and more. In addition to being a typical cnidarian representative, Hydractinia offers many practical and theoretical advantages: studies that are feasible in Hydra like regeneration, pattern regulation, and cell renewal from stem cells, can be supplemented by genetic analyses and classical embryology in Hydractinia. Metamorphosis of the planula larva of Hydractinia can be used as a model for cell activation and communication and the presence of a genetically controlled allorecognition system makes it a suitable model for comparative immunology. Most importantly, Hydractinia may be manipulated at most aspects of its (short) life cycle. It has already been the subject of many studies in various disciplines, some of which are discussed in this essay.     

Trained immunity: a memory for innate host defense

Immune responses in vertebrates are classically divided into innate and adaptive, with only the latter being able to build up immunological memory. However, although lacking adaptive immune responses, plants and invertebrates are protected against reinfection with pathogens, and invertebrates even display transplant rejection. In mammals, past "forgotten" studies demonstrate cross-protection between infections independently of T and B cells, and more recently memory properties for NK cells and macrophages, prototypical cells of innate immunity, have been described. We now posit that mammalian innate immunity also exhibits an immunological memory of past insults, for which we propose the term "trained immunity." Understanding trained immunity will revolutionize our view of host defense and immunological memory, and could lead to defining a new class of vaccines and immunotherapies.     

An improved method for separation of leucocytes from peripheral blood of the little skate (Leucoraja erinacea)

Cartilaginous fish, especially sharks, rays and skates (elasmobranchs), hold interest as comparative models in immunology because they are thought to be among the organisms most closely related to the ancestor animal that first developed acquired immunity. The aim of this study was to improve methods used for the purification of viable leucocytes from peripheral blood of elasmobranchs. Here we describe modifications of density gradient centrifugation and medium formulation that improve isolation and analysis of highly purified leucocytes from peripheral blood of a model elasmobranch, Leucoraja erinacea, the little skate. These techniques contribute to the preparation of elasmobranch immune cells that can be reliably analyzed by a variety of means, including the study of immune function.     

The magnitude of local immunity in the lungs of mice induced by live attenuated influenza vaccines is determined by local viral replication and induction of cytokines

While live attenuated influenza vaccines (LAIVs) have been shown to be efficacious and have been licensed for human use, the surface glycoproteins hemagglutinin (HA) and neuraminidase (NA) have to be updated for optimal protective efficacy. Little is known about the effect of different HA and NA proteins on the immunogenicity of LAIVs developed using the same backbone. A panel of LAIVs that share the internal protein genes, with unique HA and NA gene segments from different influenza subtypes, was rescued by reverse genetics, and a comparative study of immune responses induced by these vaccines was conducted in mice. The results suggest that the magnitude of lung immunity, including pulmonary IgA antibody and memory CD8(+) T lymphocytes, induced by the vaccines depends on the replication efficiency of the LAIVs, as well as the induction of cytokines/chemokines in the lungs. However, these factors are not important in determining systemic immunity such as serum antibody titers and memory CD8(+) T cells in the spleen. A qualitative analysis of immune responses induced by a single dose of an H5N1 LAIV revealed that the vaccine induced robust systemic and mucosal immunity in mice. In addition, antibodies and memory lymphocytes established in the lungs following vaccination were required for protection against lethal challenge with homologous and heterologous H5N1 viruses. Our results highlight the different requirements for inducing systemic and lung immunity that can be explored for the development of pulmonary immunity for protection against respiratory pathogens.     

Maternal transfer of strain-specific immunity in an invertebrate

The most celebrated component of the vertebrate immune system is the acquired response in which memory cells established during primary infection enhance the proliferation of antibodies during secondary infection. Additionally, the strength of vertebrate acquired immune responses varies dramatically depending on the infecting pathogen species or on the pathogen genotype within species. Because invertebrates lack the T-cell receptors and Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) molecules that mediate vertebrate adaptive immune responses, they are thought to lack adaptive immunity and be relatively unspecific in their interactions with pathogens. With only innate immunity, invertebrate hosts are believed to be nai;ve at each new encounter with pathogens. Nevertheless, some forms of facultative immunity appear to be important in insects; some individuals have enhanced immunity due to population density, and some social insects benefit when their nest-mates have been exposed to a pathogen or pathogen mimic (; see for a predation example.) Here we provide evidence for acquired strain-specific immunity in the crustacean Daphnia magna infected with the pathogenic bacteria Pasteuria ramosa. Specifically, the fitness of hosts was enhanced when challenged with a bacterial strain their mother had experienced relative to cases when mother and offspring were challenged with different strains.     

Dismantling the immune system

During the past year, we have witnessed a veritable explosion in the number of mutant mouse strains produced by gene targeting in embryonic stem cells. Many of the informative targeted mutants have relevance to the field of immunology. At least one mutant mouse strain now exists for most of the important genes in immunology, and this collection of mutant mice has greatly expanded the experimental repertoire of immunologists. New targeting techniques have been developed that have often found their first application in immunology.