Development and Psychometric Evaluation of the Cat Care and Needs Scale (CCANS)

The objective of this study was to develop a brief scale, primarily intended for research applications, that measures how well people report meeting the welfare needs of their pet cats. The practice of keeping cats as a companion animal has increased, and despite their popularity, many cats suffer from poor welfare and behavioral problems. The failure to meet their welfare needs and provide for natural behaviors impacts their quality of life and may affect cats’ retention in adoptive homes. We present three studies in which we developed, piloted, and psychometrically evaluated the Cat Care and Needs Scale (CCANS) by surveying cat guardians, examining their selfreported care-taking habits and interactions in regards to a pet cat. The final study (n = 1,591) resulted in a 15-item scale which shows high reliability, with application of item response theory indicating that individual items were all suitable for inclusion. Diverse evidence, including a factor analysis, parallel analysis, and confirmatory factor analysis, supports that the scale is unidimensional. The CCANS is scalable and allows for correlational comparisons with other scales which measure any variable of interest in research exploring human–companion animal relationships or cat welfare. We propose that the CCANS scale is a step forward in measuring how well pet owners understand and meet their cats’ behavioral, welfare, and basic care needs.     

What's in a name? Perceptions of stray and feral cat welfare and control in Aotearoa, New Zealand

New Zealanders (n = 354) rated the acceptability of lethal and nonlethal cat control methods and the importance of conservation and welfare. Lethal control was more acceptable for feral cats than strays; for nonlethal control, the inverse was true. More than concern for the welfare of cats subjected to control, perceived conservation benefits, risk of disease transfer, and companion cat welfare dictated the acceptability of control measures. Similarly, the welfare consideration for groups of cats differed, transitioning from companion (highest) to feral (lowest). Differences in attitudes toward acceptability of control methods were evident. In particular, nonhuman animal professionals ranked lethal control as more acceptable than did nonanimal professionals. Cat caregivers (owners) considered both conservation and welfare issues of greater importance than did nonowners. Owners ranked the acceptability of nonlethal control methods higher for stray cats, but not feral, than did nonowners. This research indicates that the use of the terms stray and feral may have significant impact on cats in New Zealand. There is also a greater consideration of conservation values than of welfare in stray and feral cat control.     

Animal Abuse in Massachusetts: A Summary of Case Reports at the MSPCA and Attitudes of Massachusetts Veterinarians

New Zealanders (n = 354) rated the acceptability of lethal and nonlethal cat control methods and the importance of conservation and welfare. Lethal control was more acceptable for feral cats than strays; for nonlethal control, the inverse was true. More than concern for the welfare of cats subjected to control, perceived conservation benefits, risk of disease transfer, and companion cat welfare dictated the acceptability of control measures. Similarly, the welfare consideration for groups of cats differed, transitioning from companion (highest) to feral (lowest). Differences in attitudes toward acceptability of control methods were evident. In particular, nonhuman animal professionals ranked lethal control as more acceptable than did nonanimal professionals. Cat caregivers (owners) considered both conservation and welfare issues of greater importance than did nonowners. Owners ranked the acceptability of nonlethal control methods higher for stray cats, but not feral, than did nonowners. This research indicates that the use of the terms stray and feral may have significant impact on cats in New Zealand. There is also a greater consideration of conservation values than of welfare in stray and feral cat control.     

Zoo Animal Welfare: The Human Dimension

ABSTRACT

Standards and policies intended to safeguard nonhuman animal welfare, whether in zoos, farms, or laboratories, have tended to emphasize features of the physical environment. However, research has now made it clear that very different welfare outcomes are commonly seen in facilities using similar environments or conforming to the same animal welfare requirements. This wide variation is almost certainly due, at least in part, to the important effects of the actions of animal care staff on animal welfare. Drawing mostly on the farm animal literature, we propose that this “human dimension” of animal welfare involves seven components: (1) positive human–animal interaction, (2) consistency and familiarity of keepers, (3) treating animals as individuals and taking account of their personalities, (4) the attitudes and personalities of keepers, (5) the keepers’ knowledge and experience, (6) the keepers’ own well-being, and (7) the influence of facility design on how keepers and others interact with the animals. We suggest that attention to these human factors provides major scope for improving the welfare of animals in zoos.     

Advances in Applied Zoo Animal Welfare Science

ABSTRACT

Nonhuman animal welfare science is the scientific study of the welfare state of animals that attempts to make inferences about how animals feel from their behavior, endocrine function, and/or signs of physical health. These welfare measurements are applicable within zoos yet inherently more complex than in farms and laboratories. This complexity is due to the vast number of species housed, lack of fundamental biological information, and relatively lower sample sizes and levels of experimental control. This article summarizes the invited presentations on the topic of “Advances in Applied Animal Welfare Science,” given at the Fourth Global Animal Welfare Congress held jointly by the Detroit Zoological Society and the World Association of Zoos and Aquariums in 2017. The article focuses on current trends in research on zoo animal welfare under the following themes: (a) human–animal interactions and relationships, (b) anticipatory behavior, (c) cognitive enrichment, (d) behavioral biology, and (e) reproductive and population management. It highlights areas in which further advancements in zoo animal welfare science are needed and the challenges that may be faced in doing so.     

Trends in sheltering and welfare at the Hawaiian Humane Society, Oahu, Hawaii

One of the major goals of an animal welfare organization is to reduce the number of homeless, nonhuman animals in a community. In Hawaii, the Hawaiian Humane Society has provided numerous animal welfare services to work toward this goal, such as offering sterilizations and microchipping at reduced rates and facilitating animal adoptions and education. In addition, the Leash Law and the Cat Identification Program have increased animal welfare through increasing the responsibilities of companion animal caregivers (owners). The goal of this research was to assess if temporal changes in animal sheltering have occurred in Hawaii. The study assessed this by analyzing historical data on dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) admitted, returned to owner, sterilized, euthanized, and adopted from the Humane Societies of Oahu, Hawaii, from 1993 to 2008. The study also analyzed dog and cat admittance and Honolulu population growth from 1975 to 2008. Sterilizations and pets returned to owners have increased significantly, whereas admittance and euthanasia rates have decreased significantly. Thus, although these data cannot conclusively state that there are fewer homeless animals in Hawaii, the results provide positive indicators of reducing homeless pets, especially when coupled with an increase in both the human population of Honolulu County and dog ownership.     

Trends in Sheltering and Welfare at the Hawaiian Humane Society,Oahu, Hawaii

One of the major goals of an animal welfare organization is to reduce the number of homeless, nonhuman animals in a community. In Hawaii, the Hawaiian Humane Society has provided numerous animal welfare services to work toward this goal, such as offering sterilizations and microchipping at reduced rates and facilitating animal adoptions and education. In addition, the Leash Law and the Cat Identification Program have increased animal welfare through increasing the responsibilities of companion animal caregivers (owners). The goal of this research was to assess if temporal changes in animal sheltering have occurred in Hawaii. The study assessed this by analyzing historical data on dogs (Canis familiaris) and cats (Felis catus) admitted, returned to owner, sterilized, euthanized, and adopted from the Humane Societies of Oahu, Hawaii, from 1993 to 2008. The study also analyzed dog and cat admittance and Honolulu population growth from 1975 to 2008. Sterilizations and pets returned to owners have increased significantly, whereas admittance and euthanasia rates have decreased significantly. Thus, although these data cannot conclusively state that there are fewer homeless animals in Hawaii, the results provide positive indicators of reducing homeless pets, especially when coupled with an increase in both the human population of Honolulu County and dog ownership.     

The Legal Status of Cats in New Zealand: A Perspective on the Welfare of Companion,Stray, and Feral Domestic Cats (Felis catus)

Pinpointing and safeguarding the welfare status of domestic cats is problematic, especially in New Zealand where cats are introduced predators with significant impact on indigenous fauna. Usually the identification of welfare status depends on conservational, legal, and public attitudes that are often contrasting. Cats may rapidly transgress definitions placed on them, confounding attempts to categorize them. In 1 generation, cats can move from a human-dependent state (“stray” or “companion”) to wild (“feral”). Often this categorization uses arbitrary behavioral and or situational parameters; consequent treatment and welfare protection for these cats are similarly affected. Terminology used to describe cats is not equitable across research. However, the New Zealand Animal Welfare (Companion Cats) Code of Welfare 2007 seeks to create a new definition of the terms companion, stray, and feral. It distinguishes between cats who live within and without human social constructs. This legislation mandates that cats in human environments or indirectly dependent on humans cannot be classified as feral. Such definitions may prove vital when safeguarding the welfare of free-living domestic cats and cat colonies.     

A Comparison of Attachment Levels of Adopters of Cats: Fee-Based Adoptions Versus Free Adoptions

Nonhuman animal welfare professionals have been critical of adoption programs that do not charge a fee for adult cats, despite the high euthanasia rate for cats due to a reported lack of homes. The argument against the free cat adoptions cites a devaluation of the cat, which may affect the adopter's perceived value of the cat and subsequent care. It may also attract low-income adopters who are perceived as unable to fulfill the financial responsibility of acting as caregiver (owner) of a companion animal (pet). This study examined adopters' attachment to their cats in relation to the payment or waiver of an adoption fee using the Lexington Attachment to Pets Scale and perception of the shelter. No significant differences were found between groups on either measure. Programs such as this create an opportunity to positively affect cats in animal shelters by finding more homes; programs such as this also affect cat overpopulation by putting more altered cats into the community.     

Exploring Children’s Perspectives on the Welfare Needs of Pet Animals

Children are increasingly viewed as important recipients of educational interventions to improve animal welfare, yet research examining their perspectives is lacking, particularly within the UK. Helping children to care appropriately for animals depends, not least, on an ability to understand the needs of different species and correctly identify cues given by the animal that indicate its welfare state. This study began to explore: (a) children’s perceptions of welfare needs, focusing on four common pet animals; (b) influences on the development of knowledge; (c) beliefs about whether or not (all) animals are sentient, and (d) their confidence in identifying when their own pets are in need. Fourteen focus groups were carried out with 53 children aged 7 to 13 years. Findings highlighted an affirmative response that animals have feelings (dogs especially), albeit with doubts about this applying universally. There was wide variation in children’s knowledge of welfare needs, even among owners of the animal in question. Conversely, some children lacked confidence in spite of the extensive knowledge they had developed through direct experience. An important finding was a perceived difficulty in identifying the needs of particular species or specific types of need in their own pets. Fitting well with a recent emphasis on “positive welfare,” children felt that many animals need demonstrative love and attention, especially cats and dogs. While there is clearly scope for educating children about common needs and cues that indicate animals’ welfare state, other areas pose a greater challenge. Emotional connection seems important in the development of extensive knowledge and concern for welfare. Accordingly, animals that do not possess the kind of behavioral repertoire that is easy to interpret or allows for a perceived sense of reciprocity are possibly at risk of negative welfare experiences.     

Carnivorous Cats,Vegetarian Dogs,and the Resolution of the Vegetarian's Dilemma

The present research sought to further clarify the vegetarian's dilemma, the conflict that pits feeding one's pet an animal-based diet that may be perceived as best promoting their well-being with concerns over animal welfare and environmental degradation threatened by such diets. It specifically examined whether non-meat eaters would distinguish between pet dogs and cats in the percentage of their diet derived from animal products, guilt experienced from such diets, and perceived appropriateness of non-vegetarian diets. Survey responses from 290 vegans and vegetarians indicated that participants fed their pet dogs a diet significantly more vegetarian than they fed their pet cats, and reported experiencing less guilt feeding their cats a diet derived highly from animals than in feeding their dogs such a diet. This lack of guilt largely arose from greater endorsement that vegetarian diets were more inappropriate for cats than dogs. For dogs, then, the vegetarian's dilemma was resolved primarily through feeding them diets reduced in meat/fish. For cats, the primary attempt at resolving the dilemma was not behavioral but perceptual in that vegetarian diets were deemed inappropriate. As discussed, this latter strategy was met with mixed success. Overall, the reaction of participants reflected prevailing medical wisdom that vegetarian diets are somewhat acceptable for dogs but problematic for cats.     

Phenotyping of genetically engineered mice: humane, ethical, environmental, and husbandry issues

The growing use of genetically engineered (GE) mice in scientific research has raised many concerns about the animal welfare of such mice. The types of welfare concerns may differ within the three stages that comprise the establishment of GE animal models: development, production, and research use. The role and impact of the members of the research team on these concerns may also vary with each stage. To make both scientific and animal welfare decisions at each stage, it is necessary to have a thorough knowledge of the animal model-in this case, the phenotypic expression of the GE animal. Phenotype screening is the analysis of visible or measurable characteristics of an animal that result from the genotype and its interaction with the environment. Phenotypes expressed that are relevant to the research program are usually carefully investigated; however, those that may have an impact on the animal's welfare but have little or no impact on the disease process under study are often less carefully studied. Thorough analysis and documentation of the animal welfare aspects of phenotype provide the research team with the information they need to control the environment to minimize negative animal welfare effects. Such information is also essential to allow members of the institutional animal care and use committee to perform necessary cost:benefit ethical review of proposed GE animal studies. Investigators who submit information about models for publication should document all aspects of a phenotype, including the area of scientific interest as well as those areas that affect animal welfare, for clarity and for subsequent research with the respective models.     

Why Do People Feed Free-roaming Cats? The Role of Anticipated Regret in an Extended Theory of Planned Behavior in Malaysia

Free-roaming cats are common in residential and public areas in Malaysia and approach people for food. However, the psychological determinants of public feeding are unknown. This study investigated public perceptions of feeding free-roaming cats, based on an extended theory of planned behavior (TPB). It consisted of qualitative belief-elicitation interviews with 25 participants, followed by a quantitative survey of 167 participants, representative of the country’s population. The majority (87.2%) of the sample had fed free-roaming cats. The mean intention score (4.88 out of 7) indicated the public was likely, and would make an effort, to feed free-roaming cats in the future. The public’s benevolence toward animals largely explained the findings, based on generally positive attitudes and perceptions of moderate social credence and capability and confidence, underpinned by affective and cognitive beliefs. An important finding was the role of anticipated regret in predicting and explaining intentions, which contributed variance over and above that explained by the TPB constructs. The extended framework is explained by the influence of anticipated regret on the perceived evaluation of potential TPB outcomes, which in turn leads to the behavior becoming less volitional. Therefore, future TPB studies of people’s interactions with animals, such as free-roaming cats, should take account of affective and emotional antecedents of behavior, such as anticipated regret, to improve explanatory power. The study also has implications for managing public feeding of free-roaming cats, such as drawing on and strengthening the Malaysian public’s positive attitudes and emotional concern to redirect current feeding practices toward more constructive animal welfare initiatives. Such humane approaches align with the public’s sensitivity toward animal welfare and the historical development of cat population control from lethal methods to humane non-lethal methods to ensure adequate care.     

An hourly variation in zoo visitor interest: measurement and significance for animal welfare research

A methodological difficulty facing welfare research on nonhuman animals in the zoo is the large number of uncontrolled variables due to variation within and between study sites. Zoo visitors act as uncontrolled variables, with number, density, size, and behavior constantly changing. This is worrisome because previous research linked visitor variables to animal behavioral changes indicative of stress. There are implications for research design: Studies not accounting for visitors' effect on animal welfare risk confounding (visitor) variables distorting their findings. Zoos need methods to measure and minimize effects of visitor behavior and to ensure that there are no hidden variables in research models. This article identifies a previously unreported variable—hourly variation (decrease) in visitor interest—that may impinge on animal welfare and validates a methodology for measuring it. That visitor interest wanes across the course of the day has important implications for animal welfare management; visitor effects on animal welfare are likely to occur, or intensify, during the morning or in earlier visits when visitor interest is greatest. This article discusses this issue and possible solutions to reduce visitor effects on animal well-being.     

Admissions of Cats to Animal Welfare Shelters in Melbourne,Australia

Although the number of companion animal (pet) cats (Felis catus) in Australia is decreasing, there has not been a corresponding reduction in feline admissions to nonhuman animal welfare shelters. This study tracked 15,206 cat admissions to 1 large Melbourne shelter over a 12-month period. Data collected included factors believed indicative of the cats' source subpopulation, including body condition, injuries, and sociability. The majority (81.6%) of admissions were strays. Overall desexing levels were low (4%), even among caregiver (owner)-relinquished cats (12.8%). The high sociability of many stray cats and kittens suggests that many may be “semiowned” animals. Colony cats were typically thinner and in poorer health than other admissions. The pattern of kitten admissions suggests that many queens are producing 2 litters per season. The majority of cats admitted were euthanized, indicating that there is an oversupply of cats in Melbourne, Australia, and that strategies to reduce the euthanasia rate need to target the subpopulations of cats who contribute to the current oversupply.     

A user's guide to animal welfare science

Here, I provide a guide for those new to the burgeoning field of animal welfare science as to what this comprehensive, relatively young discipline is all about. Drawing on all branches of biology, including behavioural ecology and neuroscience, the science of animal welfare asks three big questions: Are animals conscious? How can we assess good and bad welfare in animals? How can we use science to improve animal welfare in practice? I also provide guidelines for an evidence-based approach to welfare issues for policy makers and other users of animal welfare research.     

Reasons People Surrender Unowned and Owned Cats to Australian Animal Shelters and Barriers to Assuming Ownership of Unowned Cats

Most cats surrendered to nonhuman animal shelters are identified as unowned, and the surrender reason for these cats is usually simply recorded as “stray.” A cross-sectional study was conducted with people surrendering cats to 4 Australian animal shelters. Surrenderers of unowned cats commonly gave surrender reasons relating to concern for the cat and his/her welfare. Seventeen percent of noncaregivers had considered adopting the cat. Barriers to assuming ownership most commonly related to responsible ownership concerns. Unwanted kittens commonly contributed to the decision to surrender for both caregivers and noncaregivers. Nonowners gave more surrender reasons than owners, although many owners also gave multiple surrender reasons. These findings highlight the multifactorial nature of the decision-making process leading to surrender and demonstrate that recording only one reason for surrender does not capture the complexity of the surrender decision. Collecting information about multiple reasons for surrender, particularly reasons for surrender of unowned cats and barriers to assuming ownership, could help to develop strategies to reduce the number of cats surrendered.     

Xenotransplantation: a problematic world behind a glamorous facade

The discussion about the ethics of xenotransplantation seems to focus upon the benefits for individual patients and the potential risks for human society, in general, to contract a newly emerging retrovirus. In these risk-benefit considerations, the moral concern for the research animals involved appears to be absent. This is remarkable, because the presumed successful xenograft is not expected very soon. A lot of basic problems in pig and primate xenotransplantations still need solving. These new experiments in our own biomedical laboratories raise questions regarding animal welfare and ethical justification in the light of possible alternative strategies. In this article, I discuss some of the moral issues related to preclinical, fundamental xenotransplantation research.     

An Hourly Variation in Zoo Visitor Interest: Measurement and Significance for Animal Welfare Research

A methodological difficulty facing welfare research on nonhuman animals in the zoo is the large number of uncontrolled variables due to variation within and between study sites. Zoo visitors act as uncontrolled variables, with number, density, size, and behavior constantly changing. This is worrisome because previous research linked visitor variables to animal behavioral changes indicative of stress. There are implications for research design: Studies not accounting for visitors' effect on animal welfare risk confounding (visitor) variables distorting their findings. Zoos need methods to measure and minimize effects of visitor behavior and to ensure that there are no hidden variables in research models. This article identifies a previously unreported variable—hourly variation (decrease) in visitor interest—that may impinge on animal welfare and validates a methodology for measuring it. That visitor interest wanes across the course of the day has important implications for animal welfare management; visitor effects on animal welfare are likely to occur, or intensify, during the morning or in earlier visits when visitor interest is greatest. This article discusses this issue and possible solutions to reduce visitor effects on animal well-being.     

Xenotransplantation: A Problematic World Behind a Glamorous Facade

The discussion about the ethics of xenotransplantation seems to focus upon the benefits for individual patients and the potential risks for human society, in general, to contract a newly emerging retrovirus. In these risk-benefit considerations, the moral concern for the research animals involved appears to be absent. This is remarkable, because the presumed successful xenograft is not expected very soon. A lot of basic problems in pig and primate xenotransplantations still need solving. These new experiments in our own biomedical laboratories raise questions regarding animal welfare and ethical justification in the light of possible alternative strategies. In this article, I discuss some of the moral issues related to preclinical, fundamental xenotransplantation research.