Spatial and temporal movement of the Bearded Vulture using GPS telemetry in the Himalayas of Nepal

This study addresses for the first time the movement patterns of the globally near-threatened Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in its most important stronghold, the high-altitude mountain ranges of Asia. Tracked individuals (n = 8) in the Annapurna Himalayan range (Nepal) foraged over a vast range of 60 715.9 km² and our results indicated age-class differences in the use of space. Territorial adults showed very small annual home-ranges (K90 = 150.3 km²), whereas immatures wandered extensively and covered vast ranges of the mountains (K90 = 23 930.8 km²). For adults and immatures, these values are notably larger than the other two studied populations in the world (Pyrenees and South Africa). This suggests that the studied Annapurna population might exhibit lower breeding density than in the Pyrenees or South Africa, possibly due to lower food availability.     

Diet and food preferences of the endangered Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus: a basis for their conservation

The Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus population in the Pyrenees is managed using feeding stations to increase breeding success and reduce mortality in the pre-adult population. Nevertheless, very little quantitative and qualitative information has been published on such basic aspects of the species' ecology as feeding habits and dietary preferences. This study investigated both aspects through direct and unbiased observation of breeding Bearded Vultures during the chick-rearing period. Bearded Vulture diet comprises mammals (93%), birds (6%) and reptiles (1%), with medium-sized ungulates (mainly sheep/goats) the most important species in the diet (61%, n  = 677). Prey items were not selected in proportion to their availability, with the remains of larger species (cows and horses) being avoided, probably due to the variable cost/benefit ratios in handling efficiency, ingestion process and transport. There is no relationship between the proportion of sheep limbs in the diet and the proximity of feeding stations, suggesting that these sites are probably less important for breeding adults than for the pre-adult population. On the other hand, diet specificity seems related to productivity, with territories with greater trophic breadth being those with higher fecundity. Bearded Vultures prefer to eat limbs, although meat remains (provided principally by small mammals) can play an important role in guaranteeing breeding success during the first few weeks after hatching. The management of carrion provided by animals that die naturally in extensive livestock practices and the remains of wild ungulates which have died naturally or by human hunting, are important conservation tools for the Bearded Vulture and other carrion-eating species.     

青藏高原胡兀鹫与巢域中峭壁生境营巢鸟类的种间互动关系初探

胡兀鹫(Gypaetus barbatus)是峭壁生境营巢鸟类,其领域是关系到繁殖与生存的必需资源。2010~2013年,在青藏高原4个省区中的7个胡兀鹫繁殖地进行了调查,结合1990~1993年的调查资料,用直接观察法记录了12个胡兀鹫繁殖巢域(距巢址500 m范围内)中的峭壁生境营巢繁殖鸟类,并初步评估了这些鸟类与胡兀鹫的种间关系。结果表明,巢区中观察到其体型可引起胡兀鹫警觉反应的鸟类计有23种,营巢繁殖的有11种。繁殖鸟类中猛禽有高山兀鹫(Gyps himalayensis)、猎隼(Felco cherrug)、金雕(Aquila chrysaetos)、大鵟(Buteo hemilasius)、长耳鸮(Asio otus)5种,鸦科鸟类有红嘴山鸦(Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax)、黄嘴山鸦(P.graculus)和大嘴乌鸦(Corvus macrorhynchos)3种。前述23种可引起胡兀鹫警觉反应的鸟类在胡兀鹫巢域中被记录到的活动行为频次为1 298次·只,观察到12种鸟与胡兀鹫发生种间互动行为,频次合计65次,其中鸦科鸟类与胡兀鹫发生的种间互动行为频次最高(34次)。观察到胡兀鹫驱赶巢域内的捕猎金雕导致其放弃猎物的行为。对种间关系的初步评估结论为:(1)毗邻高山兀鹫繁殖巢的胡兀鹫,表现出同种繁殖对之间巢间距明显缩短的现象,其巢间距由35.84 km(25.10~47.30 km,n=6个巢)缩短至7.39 km(6.22~8.58 km,n=5个巢);(2)在胡兀鹫巢域中营巢繁殖的猎隼,其同种间巢间距缩短至150~360 m(n=4个巢);(3)由于高山兀鹫在当地传统文化习俗中的重要地位,胡兀鹫与其毗邻营巢,可以在很大程度上降低人类直接干扰活动对其繁殖成功率的不利影响;(4)在人为干扰活动或其他原因导致胡兀鹫亲鸟离巢的情况下,鸦科鸟类和捕食性猛禽(尤其是猎隼)的存在,在很大程度上增加了胡兀鹫卵和幼雏被天敌掠食的可能性;(5)胡兀鹫育雏早期需要获取肉含量高的食物(体型较小的死亡动物),在胡兀鹫巢域或附近区域营巢的捕食性猛禽所遗落的猎物,很可能具有一定程度的补充作用。     

Vulture distribution and people perception of vultures in Pokhara Valley,Nepal

Due to an abundance and diversity of vultures, Nepal is one of the most important countries for vulture conservation. Within Nepal, the Pokhara Valley is especially significant. We examine the distribution of vultures within the Pokhara Valley by conducting counts at 11 potential feeding or roosting sites using point count method. We further surveyed people of the valley regarding their perception of vulture ecology and conservation, knowledge of diclofenac use within the valley, and burial of livestock carcasses. We detected eight species of vultures, four of which are currently threatened with extinction. White‐rumped vulture Gyps bengalensis, Egyptian vulture Nephron percnopterus, and Himalayan vulture G. himalayensis were the most abundant. Almost all respondents (98%) had sighted the vultures in the wild. Formally educated respondents reported seeing vultures’ slightly more than nonformally educated respondents. Fifty‐eight percent respondents suspected habitat loss was the major threat for the vulture population decline in Pokhara Valley, and 97% respondents were not aware of any diclofenac use. The knowledge of vultures in people with different age groups suggests a more awareness programs are needed for local people, especially those who carry out animal husbandry and provide livestock to the vulture restaurant.     

Vulture Genomes Reveal Molecular Adaptations Underlying Obligate Scavenging and Low Levels of Genetic Diversity

Obligate scavenging on the dead and decaying animal matter is a rare dietary specialization that in extant vertebrates is restricted to vultures. These birds perform essential ecological services, yet many vulture species have undergone recent steep population declines and are now endangered. To test for molecular adaptations underlying obligate scavenging in vultures, and to assess whether genomic features might have contributed to their population declines, we generated high-quality genomes of the Himalayan and bearded vultures, representing both independent origins of scavenging within the Accipitridae, alongside a sister taxon, the upland buzzard. By comparing our data to published sequences from other birds, we show that the evolution of obligate scavenging in vultures has been accompanied by widespread positive selection acting on genes underlying gastric acid production, and immunity. Moreover, we find evidence of parallel molecular evolution, with amino acid replacements shared among divergent lineages of these scavengers. Our genome-wide screens also reveal that both the Himalayan and bearded vultures exhibit low levels of genetic diversity, equating to around a half of the mean genetic diversity of other bird genomes examined. However, demographic reconstructions indicate that population declines began at around the Last Glacial Maximum, predating the well-documented dramatic declines of the past three decades. Taken together, our genomic analyses imply that vultures harbor unique adaptations for processing carrion, but that modern populations are genetically depauperate and thus especially vulnerable to further genetic erosion through anthropogenic activities.     

Phylogeography, genetic structure and diversity in the endangered bearded vulture (Gypaetus barbatus, L) as revealed by mitochondrial DNA

Bearded vulture populations in the Western Palearctic have experienced a severe decline during the last two centuries that has led to the near extinction of the species in Europe. In this study we analyse the sequence variation at the mitochondrial control region throughout the species range to infer its recent evolutionary history and to evaluate the current genetic status of the species. This study became possible through the extensive use of museum specimens to study populations now extinct. Phylogenetic analysis revealed the existence of two divergent mitochondrial lineages, lineage A occurring mainly in Western European populations and lineage B in African, Eastern European and Central Asian populations. The relative frequencies of haplotypes belonging to each lineage in the different populations show a steep East-West clinal distribution with maximal mixture of the two lineages in the Alps and Greece populations. A genealogical signature for population growth was found for lineage B, but not for lineage A; futhermore the Clade B haplotypes in western populations and clade A haplo-types in eastern populations are recently derived, as revealed by their peripheral location in median-joining haplotype networks. This phylogeographical pattern suggests allopatric differentiation of the two lineages in separate Mediterranean and African or Asian glacial refugia, followed by range expansion from the latter leading to two secondary contact suture zones in Central Europe and North Africa. High levels of among-population differentiation were observed, although these were not correlated with geographical distance. Due to the marked genetic structure, extinction of Central European populations in the last century re-sulted in the loss of a major portion of the genetic diversity of the species. We also found direct evidence for the effect of drift altering the genetic composition of the remnant Pyrenean population after the demographic bottleneck of the last century. Our results argue for the management of the species as a single population, given the apparent ecological exchangeability of extant stocks, and support the ongoing reintroduction of mixed ancestry birds in the Alps and planned reintroductions in Southern Spain.     

Population dynamics of the bearded vulture Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa

The essential features of mortality and survivorship of bearded vultures Gypaetus barbatus in southern Africa were deduced from age class plumage characteristics. The population consisted of about 204 adult pairs within a breeding range of about 35,000 sq km. Pairs bred every year and produced, on average, about 0·9 young per pair per year. Young birds made up about 37% of the population, subadults 3·5% and adults 60%. About 182 fledged young were recruited to the population each year. The proportion of young birds in the population in different areas was inversely related to the breeding density of adult birds (range 24–47%). Young bird mortality over the four years to subadult age was 87%, the survival rate of adults was 94% and the mean lifespan of birds surviving to adulthood was 21·4 years. This study demonstrates the need to understand the relationship between adult breeding density and young bird numbers in different parts of their range to accurately deduce population dynamics characteristics.     

First cases of polygyny for the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the central Pyrenees

We report the first cases of polygyny for the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the central Pyrenees, Spain. Although polyandry is frequent in the study area (31.8% of all reproductive units in 2016), we only observed the occurrence of three cases of polygyny over the period 1994–2017. Polygyny in Bearded Vultures is possibly a consequence of habitat saturation.     

Breeding biology and success of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the eastern Pyrenees

We present data from an extensive study of Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus breeding biology in the Pyrenees from 1992 to 1999. Average laying date was 6 January (range 11 December to 12 February, n  = 69) with no significant differences between years. Eighty per cent of clutches were of two eggs ( n  = 20) and average incubation was 54 days (range 52–56, n  = 14). Hatching occurred on average between 21 February and 3 March (range 5 February–7 April) and the first and last chicks fledged in 21–27 May and 20 July, respectively. The average chick age at fledging was 123 days (range 103–133, n  = 20). Bearded Vulture density increased significantly during the study period. Breeding success and productivity declined apparently as a consequence of the increase in the percentage of breeding failures during incubation and chick rearing, most during the hatching period. The factors that may determine breeding failure and the decline in breeding performance are analysed and management recommendations for more effective conservation measures are discussed.     

Breeding behaviour of the Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus: minimal sexual differences in parental activities

Monogamous biparental care is expected to occur when opportunities for extra-pair copulations are rare, and both parents are required to raise the chick. Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus fulfill these conditions. Contributions by male and female Bearded Vulture to nest building, nest defence, incubation, nest attendance and chick feeding were studied over five years in eight pairs from the Pyrenees [Catalonia, northeast Spain). Overall, the sexes show equal investment, although the degree of parental effort developed differs depending on the specific activities. During pre-laying, males were significantly more active than females in supplying material to the nest and in territorial defence behaviour, which increased (in both sexes) as the season advanced. Incubation was shared equally both by day and by night. During chick-rearing, the nest was attended by both sexes and the presence of both parents at the nest decreased in parallel with the growth of the chick. Activities related to chick feeding were also equally divided. These results are discussed in the context of female selection of mates and the particular ecology of this species.     

考古动物群中的偏移现象——埋藏学的视角

考古动物群是由古代生物群经过死亡群、埋藏群、化石群的逐次"过滤"而形成的一个"采集群"[1]。在这一漫长而复杂的地质历史过程中,不同来源、不同规模、不同作用方式的多种埋藏学因素都在其中打上了自己的深刻"烙印",并在各自的层面上改变了考古动物群的最终面貌,从而导致了化石记录与原始生物群之间的客观偏移。因此,在对考古遗址发掘出土的大量动物化石进行合理解释之前,有必要了解和研究那些可能影响考古动物群最终组成的埋藏学过程或动因。本文以东亚地区的几项埋藏学研究为例,重点阐释了一些可能导致考古动物群偏移的埋藏学过程。     

Population expansion and breeding success of Bearded Vultures Gypaetus barbatus in the French Pyrenees: results from long‐term population monitoring

Based on monitoring of Bearded Vultures over 24 years in the French Pyrenees, we assessed factors explaining temporal and spatial variations in numbers and breeding performance. The number of territorial pairs increased throughout the study period from 16 in 1994 to 44 in 2017. No significant negative trends in mean productivity (fledglings per territorial pair) were detected with increasing population size. Colonization probability increased significantly with breeding population size the previous year and with the regular provision of supplementary food in the territory the winter when colonization occurred. Colonization of new territories simultaneously increased the distribution range and local densities, but we found no effect of number of near neighbours on productivity. Pairs having bred less than 5 years together had a much lower probability of laying clutches, and higher lay rates were observed inside or close to protected areas after accounting for pair‐bond length, so productivity of territories inside protected areas was significantly higher. Nest success decreased with advanced lay date and increased with winter food abundance. Nesting failures in the study area were frequently associated with harsh weather. Additionally, disturbance by human activities was the second most important identified cause of breeding failure. The probability of failing due to disturbance was higher in western areas (where breeding areas are more accessible to humans), outside protected areas, and has increased with time. After a failure due to disturbance, there was a significantly higher probability of not producing a clutch the following year as compared with pairs that had not failed or had failed due to other causes, indicating deferred effects of disturbance. Our results show the benefits of conservation management actions, such as implementation of protected areas or designed supplementary food programmes in winter, to help range expansion. On the other hand, we did not find a significant effect of winter supplementary food on productivity. Management of feeding sites should be adapted to more specific planning, being used only in areas where natural food availability is scarce, avoiding its use close to breeding sites when juveniles disperse, and targeted mainly to help range expansion. Our results also highlight the importance of maintaining or enhancing good populations of wild ungulates and regulating human activities around nesting sites of this threatened species.     

长江口中华鲟幼鱼的食物组成及摄食习性

分析了2004年5-9月长江口水域中华鲟幼鱼的食物组成及摄食的月份变化.结果表明:长江口中华鲟幼鱼以底栖小型鱼类、多毛类和端足类为主要食物,兼食虾类、蟹类及瓣鳃类等小型底栖动物.幼鱼的摄食率和摄食强度较高,且摄食强度存在着月份变化.主要饵料生物组成有明显的月变化,且食物个体有逐渐增大的趋势,其中5月主食多毛类和蟹类,6月主食鱼类和端足类,7月为鱼类和多毛类,8月样本较少且为空胃,9月为鱼类和虾类.与历史资料进行比较发现,曾是幼鱼重要饵料的鲬类所占比例极小,其质量百分比仅占1.81%;而以前未曾记录的虾虎鱼类在食物中所占比例较高, 其质量百分比达50.54%;等足类以前也未曾记录,其出现频率达10.07%.     

Rapid population declines of Egyptian vulture (Neophron percnopterus) and red-headed vulture (Sarcogyps calvus) in India

Since the early 1990s, large and rapid population declines of three species of vulture ( Gyps spp.) endemic to south Asia have occurred on the Indian subcontinent and have led to these species being listed by IUCN as critically endangered. Evidence of rates of population decline, cause of death and toxicity is consistent with these declines being caused by poisoning of vultures through the ingestion of tissues from livestock treated with the anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac. In this paper, analysis of repeated surveys in and near protected areas widely spread across India shows that populations of two other vulture species, Egyptian vulture Neophron percnopterus and red-headed vulture Sarcogyps calvus , have also declined markedly and rapidly, but probably with a later onset than Gyps vultures in the same region. The declines continued at least up to 2003. It is recommended that these two species are considered for inclusion in the IUCN Red List and for urgent remedial conservation measures. Research is needed to determine whether or not the principal cause of these declines is diclofenac poisoning and to establish population trends in other scavenging birds in the Indian subcontinent.     

Diet and Feeding Behavior in Adults of the Apteropanorpidae (Mecoptera)

The Apteropanorpidae is a small family of scorpionflies endemic to Tasmania. The biology of the family is almost completely unknown. Here we present results of laboratory and field studies of the diet and feeding behavior of adult Apteropanorpidae. We describe the morphology of the alimentary canal and mouthparts and discuss the relationship between diet, feeding behavior and morphology. We compare these results to the feeding ecology of other extant Mecoptera, and speculate on the feeding strategies of fossil Mecoptera, placing all data in a phylogenetic context. Results show that adult Apteropanorpidae are most likely saprophagous in nature, predominantly on dead and decaying invertebrates.     

Diet of Alouatta belzebul discolor in an Amazonian Rain Forest of Northern Mato Grosso State, Brazil

Prior field studies of Alouatta showed the highest frugivory in A. belzebul. During 10 mo between October 1999 and October 2000, we studied the feeding ecology of a group of 7–9 red-handed howlers (Alouatta belzebul discolor) in a primary forest on the banks of a tributary of the Teles Pires River, near Paranaíta, MT, Brazil (9°34S; 56°19W). The howlers used 3 types of habitat: upland (terra firme) forest, flood plain forest (igapó) and palm forest (açaizal). During 45 complete days of observation, the group fed on 67 plant species (N = 2039 feeding records) in 24 families. The 2 most used families were Leguminosae and Moraceae, with 17 species each. Fruits predominated (40–80%) in every month, except June, when young leaves accounted for 54% of the diet. Dialium guianense (Leguminosal, Caesalpinioideae) was the most consumed species. Flower (6%) and mature leaf (5%) consumptions were low. Tree bark, live and decayed wood, and woody twig monthly consumption varied from 0 to 26%, and occurred only in igapó, where they used mostly Macrolobium acaciaefolium (Leguminosae, Caesalpinioideae), Clitoria amazonum (Leguminosae, Papilionoideae) and Licania cf. canescens (Chrysobalanaceae). Our study on Alouatta belzebul discolor complements the high frugivory in A. b. belzebul and documents uncommon dietary items for the species. Although there is intraspecific variation in howler diets and new studies have shown higher frugivory for more folivorous species, Alouatta belzebul seems to be the most frugivorous howler species, in spite of its wide geographical distribution and, in this case, sympatry with Ateles chamek, a frugivore.     

Breeding habitat and nest-site selection of Bearded Vulture Gypaetus barbatus in the Annapurna Himalaya Range of Nepal

Quantitative studies on nesting habitat selection are important to understand and predict the resource requirements for breeding habitat. In this study, we analysed nest-site (cliff) and territory selection patterns of the Bearded Vulture in the Annapurna Range of the Himalayas (Nepal). Our study area represents high-elevation mountain range systems, where information on nest selection is lacking, despite having the largest remaining populations of Bearded Vultures in the world. Our models indicated selection patterns at both nest and territory spatial scales that are consistent with previous studies at lower altitudes (Pyrenees, the Caucasus), such as a preference for landscape patches with greater food availability. However, our models also indicated selection patterns that are probably a response to the higher altitudes and sheer reliefs of the Annapurna massif, such as avoidance of the steepest slopes and selection of cliffs facing south and west for nest-sites. We did not detect an impact of human activities on the distribution of nests or territories. However, the Annapurna massif is experiencing development of infrastructures (e.g. road construction). Further research efforts will be needed to monitor human impacts on Bearded Vulture populations in the Annapurna Range, as this is a global stronghold for this species.