Scale of Management for Mature Male White-Tailed Deer as Influenced by Home Range and Movements

Abstract: The scale at which populations use landscapes influences ecological processes and management. We used dispersal and home-range data of 3 age groups of male white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to determine the scale at which management will be effective. Home-range size at 5.5 years of age (182 ha ± 24.9 SE) was 56% smaller (P < 0.001) than home-range size of the same 13 males as yearlings (416 ± 59.4 ha). Percent overlap of yearling and 5.5-year-old home ranges was 62.7 6 10.3% (n = 13). Distance between home-range centers of yearling and mature deer was 1,264.9 ± 407.4 m, including 3 deer that dispersed after 2.5 years of age. Average 95% fixed-kernel home-range size was 207.4 ± 20.4 ha and 225.7 ± 30.1 ha for all mature males in years 1 and 2 of our study, respectively. We found that properties >10,000 ha were needed to manage >50% of original yearling males found on the property, whereas properties of 4,500 ha would maintain 50% of original middle-aged (2.5-4.5 yr of age) and mature males (≥4.5 yr of age). Movements after dispersal were minimal, with deer shifting their center of activity <600 m and <350 m each year for middle-aged and mature males, respectively. These data could be used by managers developing management plans, recommending harvest rates, and interpreting harvest data of male white-tailed deer and by biologists attempting to understand ecological processes such as spread of disease.     

Associating Seasonal Range Characteristics With Survival of Female White-Tailed Deer

ABSTRACT Delineating populations is critical for understanding population dynamics and managing habitats. Our objective was to delineate subpopulations of migratory female white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in the central Black Hills, South Dakota and Wyoming, USA, on summer and winter ranges. We used fuzzy classification to assign radiocollared deer to subpopulations based on spatial location, characterized subpopulations by trapping sites, and explored relationships among survival of subpopulations and habitat variables. In winter, Kaplan-Meier estimates for subpopulations indicated 2 groups: high (S = 0.991 ± 0.005 [x̄ ± SE]) and low (S = 0.968 ± 0.007) weekly survivorship. Survivorship increased with basal area per hectare of trees, average diameter at breast height of trees, percent cover of slash, and total point-center quarter distance of trees. Cover of grass and forbs were less for the high survivorship than the lower survivorship group. In summer, deer were spaced apart with mixed associations among subpopulations. Habitat manipulations that promote or maintain large trees (i.e., basal area = 14.8 m²/ha and average dbh of trees = 8.3 cm) would seem to improve adult survival of deer in winter.     

Crop,Native Vegetation,and Biofuels: Response of White-Tailed Deer to Changing Management Priorities

ABSTRACT The expansion of the cellulosic biofuels industry throughout the United States has broad-scale implications for wildlife management on public and private lands. Knowledge is limited on the effects of reverting agriculture to native grass, and vice versa, on size of home range and habitat use of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We followed 68 radiocollared female deer from 1991 through 2004 that were residents of DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge (DNWR) in eastern Nebraska, USA. The refuge was undergoing conversion of vegetation out of row-crop agriculture and into native grass, forest, and emergent aquatic vegetation. Habitat in DNWR consisted of 30% crop in 1991 but removing crops to establish native grass and wetland habitat at DNWR resulted in a 44% reduction in crops by 2004. A decrease in the amount of crops on DNWR contributed to a decline in mean size of annual home range from 400 ha in 1991 to 200 ha in 2005 but percentage of crops in home ranges increased from 21% to 29%. Mean overlap for individuals was 77% between consecutive annual home ranges across 8 years, regardless of crop availability. Conversion of crop to native habitat will not likely result in home range abandonment but may impact disease transmission by increasing rates of contact between deer social groups that occupy adjacent areas. Future research on condition indices or changes in population parameters (e.g., recruitment) could be incorporated into the study design to assess impacts of habitat conversion for biofuel production.     

Survival and Cause-Specific Mortality of Mature Male White-Tailed Deer

ABSTRACT Understanding sources of male deer mortality is a prerequisite to a successful management program, especially in Texas, USA, where white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) are the most economically important game species. South Texas, USA, is one of the few areas where males reach older age classes (> 4.5 yr), in part because of intense population management. Therefore, we obtained survival rates and causes of mortality of 48 mature male deer in south Texas, USA, over 2 years. We calculated Kaplan—Meier survival estimates during 2 study years modified for a staggered-entry design and annual survival rates for one cohort of deer from 1998 to 2004 using recapture and radiotelemetry data. We documented 21 mortalities (16 harvest and 5 nonhunting mortalities). Average annual survival of the known-aged 1998 cohort was 82% with 52% of surviving to 6.5 years of age. Survival in study year 2 (0.497 ± 0.069) was less than in study year 1 (0.781 ± 0.073; P = 0.0047), largely because males had finally reached harvestable age (> 6.5 yr old). All but one non-harvest mortality occurred during the rut or postrut periods. It appears that a large percentage of males can reach mature age classes under intense population management, making them available for harvest when at peak antler size. This allows for increased economic returns on intensively managed white-tailed deer populations.     

Home Range and Movement Rates of Female Exurban White-Tailed Deer

ABSTRACT White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) thrive in fragmented exurban habitats, resulting in increased occurrences of deer-human conflicts. To develop successful management regimes managers must understand exurban deer ecology, an area deficient in current literature. We investigated exurban white-tailed deer spatial ecology on Fair Hill Natural Resource Management Area in Cecil County, Maryland, USA. From June 2004 to January 2006, we collected 37,384 telemetry locations and 1,194 visual observations on 66 radiocollared female white-tailed deer to investigate seasonal home range sizes, home range fidelity, and hourly movement rates. Annual adaptive-kernel home range size ranged from 8.1 ha to 21.7 ha and 70.9 ha to 144.5 ha among seasons (early, middle, and late-hunting, posthunting, and fawning) at the 50% and 95% utilization distributions, respectively. Seasonal home range size generally increased from the fawning through posthunting seasons. Seasonal home range overlap differed at 50% and 95% utilization distributions, with the least overlap occurring between the posthunting and fawning seasons (50%: x̄ = 19.4%, 95%: x̄ = 33.3%). Circadian activity varied among seasons with dusk movement rates greatest in all seasons. Our results suggest that this exurban white-tailed deer population resided on similar ranges throughout the year, making individuals available for harvest during traditional harvest seasons. To maximize deer—hunter contact, efforts should be focused around the dusk activity period to coincide with peak deer activity.     

Survival of White-Tailed Deer Fawns in Southern Illinois

Abstract: Survival of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) fawns has been quantified throughout much of North America. However, few studies have assessed the influence of intrinsic factors (e.g., fawn age and birth mass) and habitat on fawn survival. During 2002-2004, we captured and radiocollared 166 fawns in southern Illinois, USA, to estimate survival rates, determine causes of mortality, and identify factors influencing fawn survival. We used a known fates model in program MARK to estimate survival rates and compare explanatory models based on Akaike's Information Criterion corrected for small sample sizes (AIC_c). We developed 2 candidate sets of a priori models to quantify factors influencing fawn survival: model set 1 included intrinsic factors and model set 2 focused on habitat variables. We recorded 64 mortalities and the overall survival rate was 0.59 (95% CI = 0.51-0.68). Predation was the leading source of mortality (64%) and coyotes (Canis latrans) were the most prominent predator. For model set 1, model {S_{age X year}} had the lowest AIC_c value suggesting that the age at mortality varied among capture years. For model set 2, model {S_{landscape+forest}} had the lowest AIC_c value and indicated that areas inhabited by surviving fawns were characterized by a few large (i.e., > 5 ha) irregular forest patches adjacent to several small nonforest patches, and survival areas also contained more edge habitat than mortality areas. Due to the magnitude of coyote predation, survival areas could have represented landscapes where coyotes were less effective at locating and capturing fawns when compared to mortality areas. This study was the first account of macrohabitat characteristics directly influencing fawn survival. Wildlife managers can use this information to determine how habitat management activities may affect deer populations.     

Evaluation of Shifts in White-Tailed Deer Winter Yards in the Adirondack Region of New York

ABSTRACT In the Adirondack region of northern New York, USA, severe weather and deep snow typically force white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) to congregate in areas of dense coniferous cover and along watercourses at lower elevations. We examined 16 yards in the Adirondacks and explored the observation that deer have changed their movement behavior to incorporate residential communities within their wintering areas. We compared locations of deer herds in 2003 and 2004 to deer wintering areas mapped during the 1960s and 1970s. Deer were predominantly absent in 9 of 16 historical yards but were present in residential communities within the same drainage. Yarding areas to which deer shifted contained more residential, deciduous, and mixed cover than yards where no shift occurred, indicating that deer in residential areas were using conifer and mixed cover at a finer scale than deer in nonresidential areas. Smaller winter ranges and core areas of marked deer in a residential winter yard further imply greater concentration of resources available in these areas. Marked deer demonstrated flexibility in core winter range fidelity, a behavior that allows for more permanent shifts as habitat and food resources change or as new areas with appropriate resources are encountered. Our study suggests that low-density residential areas in lowland conifer forests may provide an energetic advantage for deer during winter due to the assemblage of quality habitat interspersed with open areas and a variety of potential food sources in environments where movement is typically constrained by deep snow. Managers should consider the potential for changes in use of deer wintering areas prior to land conservation efforts and may need to adapt management strategies to reduce conflicts in communities occupied by deer during winter.     

Reduction and Maintenance of a White-Tailed Deer Herd in Central Massachusetts

Abstract: Controlled public hunts have been used in a variety of settings to reduce overabundant white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) herds. We present the results of a large-scale (160 km²) controlled hunt at Quabbin Reservation (QR) in central Massachusetts, USA. The QR was divided into 5 hunt zones. Hunting was initiated in each zone from 1991 to 1994 and continued through 2004. The management goal was to achieve posthunt deer densities of4 deer/km². Initial estimated deer densities in each zone ranged from 11.4 deer/km² to 27.6 deer/km². The management goals were reached in each zone after 2-4 years of hunting. Posthunt populations were maintained at or below the goal even though total hunter effort was reduced. Hunters were not required to harvest antlerless deer, but antlerless deer comprised 55-83% of the harvest each year. We simulated the effects of 5 years without hunting on deer populations. The simulated deer population exceeded management goals after 2 years. Our results demonstrate that controlled public deer hunts can effectively reduce deer populations and maintain them at desired levels over large areas with minimal hunter restrictions. Managers should prepare stakeholders during the hunt planning process for the need to continue overall harvest rates of >30% during the maintenance phase of a deer management program.     

Space Use and Survival of White-Tailed Deer in an Exurban Landscape

Abstract: Exurban development is nonmetropolitan, residential development characterized by a human population density and average property size intermediate between suburban and rural areas. Although growth in exurban areas is outpacing that of urban, suburban, or rural landscapes, studies of deer (Odocoileus spp.) ecology in exurban areas are nonexistent. During 2003–2005, we studied space use (i.e., seasonal home-range and core-area size and habitat use relative to human dwellings) and survival of 43 female white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) in an exurban setting near Carbondale, Illinois. Deer had larger home ranges than most suburban deer populations and generally smaller home ranges than rural deer populations. When we analytically controlled for habitat use, deer exhibited a subtle avoidance of human dwellings, especially during the fawning season. The annual survival rate was among the highest reported in the literature at 0.872 (SE = 0.048). Only 5 deer (cause-specific mortality rate = 0.091) were harvested by hunters, indicating major obstacles for wildlife managers when attempting to manage deer in exurban areas using traditional hunter harvest.     

Interannual Variability in Survival Rates for Adult Female White-Tailed Deer

Adult female survival is an important component to population models and management programs for white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), but short-term survival studies (1–3 yrs) may not accurately reflect the variation in interannual survival, which could alter management decisions. We monitored annual survival and cause-specific mortality rates of adult female white-tailed deer (n = 158) for 6 years (2010–2012, 2016–2018) in southern Delaware, USA. Annual survival rate differed among years. Survival rates (±SE) and mortality causes were similar in 3 years (2011 = 0.72 ± 0.08, 2017 = 0.68 ± 0.08, 2018 = 0.74 ± 0.09) and comparable to previous research from mixed forest-agricultural landscapes. A relatively low survival rate in 2010 (0.48 ± 0.11) was influenced by hunter harvest and potentially compounded by abnormally severe winter conditions in the prior year. A peracute outbreak of hemorrhagic disease occurred during summer 2012, resulting in an annual survival rate of 0.38 ± 0.11, and to our knowledge is the first reported case of a hemorrhagic disease outbreak in a monitored wild population with known fates. In 2016, we did not observe any harvest mortality, resulting in high annual survival (0.96 ± 0.04). Our results demonstrate the degree of variability in annual survival and cause-specific mortality rates within a population. We caution against the use of short-term survival studies to inform management decisions, particularly when incorporating survival data into population models or when setting harvest objectives. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

White-Tailed Deer,Weather and Predation: a New Understanding of Winter Severity for Predicting Deer Mortality

Variation in white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) mortality during winter affects population growth in cold climates. Across the northern extent of their range, mortality increases with colder temperatures and snow. Few studies have examined the relationships between winter conditions and deer mortality, and no studies have concurrently studied this relationship for different ages of deer across multiple years and landscapes. We used recently developed cause-specific mortality models to evaluate temporal and age-class variation in deer mortality in farmland areas and compared to published results from forest areas in Wisconsin, USA, from 2011–2014. We then used temporally varying snow and temperature covariates to predict mortality trends using telemetry information from 860 deer. Cause-specific mortality in the farmland varied by age and year, similar to results from previous research in the forest. Human-related mortality was the leading cause of mortality in the farmland during most years and ranged from 4.3% to 10.3% for juveniles and 3.6% to 9.1% for adults from 2011–2014. Very little predation occurred in the farmland, and this differed from previous research in the forest where predation was the leading cause of mortality. During more severe winters (2013 and 2014), other mortality, usually associated with starvation, was the leading cause of mortality for juveniles in the farmland but not adults. In the forest, we found support for saturating effects of accumulated snow depth days >30.5 cm and accumulated temperature days >0°C on mortality. We also found support for the relationship of mortality with accumulated temperature days >0°C in the farmland but no relationship with snow depth. Deer tolerate sustained cold temperatures, but the timing of winter to spring transition is more important for deer survival in both forested and agricultural areas. In the absence of empirical survival information, managers can use our model to predict annual winter effects on deer survival, which can provide improved inference compared to traditional winter severity indices. Our results suggest changes in predator abundance may have minor influence on overwinter survival compared to winter weather. Based on mortality estimates from previous research, the highest predation rates on juvenile deer in the forest occurred when wolf (Canis lupus) counts were lowest and when wolf abundance was highest, juvenile deer predation rates were lowest. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Influence of Landscape Composition and Structure on Antler Size of White-Tailed Deer

Abstract: Cause for spatial variation in phenotypic quality of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations is of great interest to wildlife managers. Relating phenotypic variation of populations to large-scale land-use patterns may provide insight into why populations exhibit spatial variation and elucidate how management can influence population phenotype. We used an information-theoretic approach to relate average antler size of 203 deer populations to composition and structure of the habitat occupied by those populations. We used interspersion, edge, and diversity indices to represent habitat structure and percentage of area in vegetation types to represent habitat composition. Landscape composition was a better predictor of deer population antler size than was landscape structure. Percentages of the management unit in agriculture, pasture, and pine forest were variables commonly found in the region-specific set of best models. Model-averaged estimates of agriculture and pasture parameters were always positive and estimates of pine forest parameters were always negative, which suggests that land-use types that promote growth of early successional herbaceous plants will positively influence antler size and, most likely, body growth and reproduction of white-tailed deer populations. Conversely, our findings suggest landscapes dominated by pine forests did not provide optimal amounts of quality forages for white-tailed deer. Pine forest effects should be mitigated using a combination of increased harvest to lower deer density and silvicultural practices like thinning, prescribed burning, and selective herbicide applications that stimulate growth of high-quality forages beneath the forest canopy to improve deer phenotypic quality.     

Integrated Population Modeling for White-Tailed Deer in Saskatchewan,Canada

Monitoring annual change and long-term trends in population structure and abundance of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) is an important but challenging component of their management. Many monitoring programs consist of count-based indices of relative abundance along with a variety of population structure information. Analyzed separately these data can be difficult to interpret because of observation error in the data collection process, missing data, and the lack of an explicit biological model to connect the data streams while accounting for their relative imprecision. We used a Bayesian age-structured integrated population model to integrate data from a fall spotlight survey that produced a count-based index of relative abundance and a volunteer staff and citizen classification survey that generated a fall recruitment index. Both surveys took place from 2003–2018 in the parkland ecoregion of southeast Saskatchewan, Canada. Our approach modeled demographic processes for age-specific (0.5-, 1.5-, ≥2.5-year-old classes) populations and was fit to count and recruitment data via models that allowed for error in the respective observation processes. The Bayesian framework accommodated missing data and allowed aggregation of transects to act as samples from the larger management unit population. The approach provides managers with continuous time series of estimated relative abundance, recruitment rates, and apparent survival rates with full propagation of uncertainty and sharing of information among transects. We used this model to demonstrate winter severity effects on recruitment rates via an interaction between winter snow depth and minimum temperatures. In years with colder than average temperatures and above average snow depth, recruitment was depressed, whereas the negative effect of snow depth reversed in years with above average temperatures. This and other covariate information can be incorporated into the model to test relationships and provide predictions of future population change prior to setting of hunting seasons. Likewise, post hoc analysis of model output allows other hypothesis tests, such as determining the statistical support for whether population status has crossed a management trigger threshold. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Assessing the Helicopter and Net Gun as a Capture Technique for White-Tailed Deer

Abstract The helicopter and net gun is a technique used to capture white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and is useful in a variety of habitat types and at various population densities with the ability to be highly selective. During capture, deer may sustain injuries or even die as a result of capture and handling, and may also be prone to capture myopathy. Therefore, our objectives were to determine 1) type and frequency of injuries sustained during the helicopter and net-gun capture, and 2) the effects of capture on survival of radiocollared deer. We captured 3,350 white-tailed deer from 1998 to 2005 using a net gun fired from a helicopter on 5 southern Texas, USA, ranches. Additionally, we captured 51 yearling males and 49 mature (≥4 yr of age) males and fitted them with radiocollars to monitor their survival. We recorded injuries and mortalities during capture and ranked the seriousness of injuries on a scale from 0 to 4. We recorded 281 injuries (8.4%) and as a result of capture, at least 206 deer had broken antlers (6.1%), 55 were injured (1.6%), and 20 were direct mortalities (0.6%). The most common antler injury was broken antler tines and the most common body injury was broken legs. Postcapture mortality rates were low (1%) for this capture method. Based on capture-related injuries, mortalities, and postcapture survival, we found the helicopter and net gun to be a safe capture technique compared to other capture techniques, particularly when conditions are favorable.     

Effects of Joint Space Use and Group Membership on Contact Rates Among White-Tailed Deer

Abstract: Establishment and spread of infectious diseases are controlled by the frequency of contacts among hosts. Although managers can estimate transmission coefficients from the relationship between disease prevalence and age or time, they may wish to quantify or compare contact rates before a disease is established or while it is at very low prevalence. Our objectives were to quantify direct and indirect contacts rates among white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) and to compare these measures of contact rate with simpler measures of joint space use. We deployed Global Positioning System (GPS) collars on 23 deer near Carbondale, Illinois, USA, from 2002 to 2005. We used location data from the GPS collars to measure pairwise rates of direct and indirect contact, based on a range of proximity criteria and time lags, as well as volume of intersection (VI) of kernel utilization distributions. We analyzed contact rates at a given distance criterion and time lag using mixed-model logistic regression. Direct contact rates increased with increasing VI and were higher in autumn—spring than in summer. After accounting for VI, the estimated odds of direct contact during autumn—spring periods were 5.0–22.1-fold greater (depending on the proximity criterion) for pairs of deer in the same social group than for between-group pairs, but for direct contacts during summer the within:between-group odds ratio did not differ significantly from 1. Indirect contact rates also increased with VI, but the effects of both season and pair-type were much smaller than for direct contacts and differed little as the time lag increased from 1–30 days. These results indicate that simple measures of joint space use are insufficient indices of direct contact because group membership can substantially increase contacts at a given level of joint space use. With indirect transmission, however, group membership had a much smaller influence after accounting for VI. Relationships between contact rates and season, VI, and pair-type were generally robust to changes in the proximity criterion defining a contact, and patterns of indirect contacts were affected little by the choice of time lag from 1–30 days. The use of GPS collars provides a framework for testing hypotheses about the form of contact networks among large mammals and comparing potential direct and indirect contact rates across gradients of ecological factors, such as population density or landscape configuration.     

Bed Site Selection by Neonate Deer in Grassland Habitats on the Northern Great Plains

Abstract: Bed site selection is an important behavioral trait influencing neonate survival. Vegetation characteristics of bed sites influence thermal protection of neonates and concealment from predators. Although previous studies describe bed site selection of neonatal white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) in regions of forested cover, none determined microhabitat effects on neonate bed site selection in the Northern Great Plains, an area of limited forest cover. During summers 2007–2009, we investigated bed site selection (n = 152) by 81 radiocollared neonate white-tailed deer in north-central South Dakota, USA. We documented 80 (52.6%) bed sites in tallgrass-Conservation Reserve Program lands, 35 (23.0%) bed sites in forested cover, and 37 (24.3%) in other habitats (e.g., pasture, alfalfa, wheat). Bed site selection varied with age and sex of neonate. Tree canopy cover (P < 0.001) and tree basal area (P < 0.001) decreased with age of neonates, with no bed sites observed in forested cover after 18 days of age. Male neonates selected sites with less grass cover (P < 0.001), vertical height of understory vegetation (P < 0.001), and density of understory vegetation (P < 0.001) but greater bare ground (P = 0.047), litter (P = 0.028), and wheat (P = 0.044) than did females. Odds of bed site selection increased 3.5% (odds ratio = 1.035, 95% CI = 1.008–1.062) for every 1-cm increase in vertical height of understory vegetation. Management for habitat throughout the grasslands of South Dakota that maximizes vertical height of understory vegetation would enhance cover characteristics selected by neonates.     

Landscape-scale habitat characteristics and neonatal white-tailed deer survival

Landscape-level habitat characteristics affect neonatal white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) survival. Little is known, however, about how changes in maternal habitat use after parturition affect neonate survival. We quantified survival rates and determined if neonate survival to 8 weeks was affected by weekly maternal habitat use in the agricultural Glaciated Plains (GP) and forest-grassland Ozark (OZ) eco-regions of Missouri, USA. We captured 127 pregnant female deer during 2015–2017, and fitted each with a global positioning system (GPS) radio-collar and vaginal implant transmitter (VIT). We captured 226 neonatal deer during 2015–2017, fitted each with an expandable radio-collar, and monitored survival status daily. We estimated weekly maternal home ranges and calculated habitat metrics within these home ranges. We used the Kaplan-Meier estimator to calculate 8-week survival estimates and Cox proportional hazards models to investigate the influence of habitat metrics on neonate survival. The 8-week survival estimates were 0.43 (95% CI = 0.35–0.54) and 0.47 (95% CI = 0.38–0.57) in the GP and OZ, respectively. Both of these survival estimates were lower than expected but particularly so in the GP because it is dominated by agricultural fields, a land cover type typically associated with high survival. Neonate survival in the GP was negatively correlated with the amount of edge and forest patch size within maternal home ranges. In the OZ, female neonate survival was positively correlated with birth mass, male neonate survival was not affected by birth mass, and survival of both sexes was negatively correlated with grassland patch density. We suspect these habitat metrics were related to predator searching efficiency and abundance. In the highly fragmented GP, predators might be able to easily search the largest cover habitat patches, whereas in the more contiguous OZ landscape, where cover habitat patch sizes were > 10 times the size of patches in the GP, large patches might be difficult for predators to search efficiently. Therefore, we recommend managers consider the larger landscape context when making habitat management decisions to increase white-tailed deer population productivity. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Comparing Survival and Movements of Non-Urban and Urban Translocated Mule Deer

In many parts of North America, deer (Odocoileus spp.) have adapted to live in urban areas and are a source of negative human-wildlife interactions. Management strategies such as culling, immunocontraceptives, sterilization, and translocation have been implemented to manage urban deer populations. In the East Kootenay region of southern British Columbia, urban mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) populations have been increasing, whereas non-urban mule deer populations have decreased. In 2014 a non-urban mule deer research project began in the area and in 2016 an urban deer translocation trial was approved in the same region. We fit 121 non-urban deer with global positioning system (GPS)-collars and translocated 135 urban mule deer to non-urban areas, of which 57 were fit with GPS-collars. We tested if annual survival between urban translocated (i.e., translocated) and non-urban deer differed, and if translocated deer survival increased in subsequent years after translocation. We also determined if age, body condition, release site, capture area and distance between capture and release sites affected translocated deer survival. We evaluated if translocated deer exhibited different movement behaviors than non-urban deer by comparing probability of migration, maximum net displacement, home range size, and probability of crossing a paved road. Finally, during our study we observed some translocated deer return to a municipal area after translocation and assessed if any covariates such as age, release site, or capture city could help predict this behavior. Annual survival of translocated deer was 0.48 and was significantly lower than survival of non-urban deer, which was 0.77. We observed 20 of 57 collared translocated deer return to a town after translocation. Translocated deer had larger net displacements and larger seasonal home range sizes than non-urban deer. Non-urban deer were more likely to migrate than translocated deer and crossed fewer paved roads than translocated deer. The management effectiveness of translocation to reduce urban deer densities is mixed because annual survival of translocated deer may be lower than may be acceptable to some stakeholders. Additionally, some translocated deer returned to an urban area, and the large distances traveled by deer after translocation may unintentionally spread disease. © 2020 The Wildlife Society.     

Survival,Birth Characteristics,and Cause-Specific Mortality of White-Tailed Deer Neonates

ABSTRACT Understanding survival of and factors that may predispose newborn deer (Odocoileus spp.) to mortality contribute to improved understanding of population dynamics. We captured free-ranging white-tailed deer neonates (n = 66) of radiocollared females that survived severe (Winter Severity Index [WSI] = 153) and mild (WSI = 45) winters 2000–2001 and 2001–2002. Mean dates of birth (26 May ± 1.7 [SE] days and 26 May ± 1.3 days) and estimated birth-masses of 2.8 ± 0.1 kg and 3.0 ± 0.1 kg were similar between springs 2001 (n = 31) and 2002 (n = 35), respectively. Neonate survival was similar between years; pooled mortality rates of neonates were 0.14, 0.11, and 0.20 at 0–1 weeks, 2–4 weeks, and 5–12 weeks of age, respectively, and overall survival rate for neonates to 12 weeks of age was 0.47. Predation accounted for 86% of mortality; the remaining 14% of deaths were attributed to unknown causes. Black bears (Ursus americanus) were responsible for 57% and 38% of predation of neonates in springs 2001 and 2002, respectively, whereas bobcats (Felis rufus) accounted for 50% in 2002. Wolves (Canis lupus) accounted for only 5% of predator-related deaths. Low birth-mass, smaller body size, and elevated concentrations of serum urea nitrogen (26.1 ± 2.6 mg/dL vs 19.3 ± 0.8 mg/dL) and tumor necrosis factor-α (82.6 ± 78.6 pg/mL vs. 2.3 ± 0.5 pg/mL) were associated with neonates that died within 1 week of birth. Even though we did not detect a direct relation between winter severity and birth or blood characteristics of neonates, evidence suggests that birth-mass and key serum indices of neonate nutrition were associated with their early mortality. Thus, managers can make more informed predictions regarding survival and cause-specific mortality of fawns and adjust management strategies to better control deer population goals.