宿主遗传背景对重组酿酒酵母木糖共发酵影响的研究进展

木糖是纤维素原料水解液中最主要的五碳糖成分,由于野生的酿酒酵母缺乏有效的木糖利用途径,将外源木糖代谢途径整合至酿酒酵母中使其具有发酵木糖生产乙醇的能力是构建纤维素乙醇发酵菌株的关键。国内外学者的研究表明,同一木糖代谢途径导入不同酿酒酵母菌株中,所得到的重组菌发酵性能存在明显差异,表明宿主的遗传背景对菌株利用木糖能力和发酵性能具有重要的影响。就酿酒酵母宿主对重组菌株的木糖发酵性能的影响进行了综述,分析了产生宿主差异的内在机理,为进一步选育高效木糖共发酵菌种提供借鉴。     

The role of peroxisomes in xylose alcoholic fermentation in the engineered Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Xylose is a second‐most abounded sugar after glucose in lignocellulosic hydrolysates and should be efficiently fermented for economically viable second‐generation ethanol production. Despite significant progress in metabolic and evolutionary engineering, xylose fermentation rate of recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae remains lower than that for glucose. Our recent study demonstrated that peroxisome‐deficient cells of yeast Ogataea polymorpha showed a decrease in ethanol production from xylose. In this work, we have studied the role of peroxisomes in xylose alcoholic fermentation in the engineered xylose‐utilizing strain of S. cerevisiae. It was shown that peroxisome‐less pex3Δ mutant possessed 1.5‐fold decrease of ethanol production from xylose. We hypothesized that peroxisomal catalase Cta1 may have importance for hydrogen peroxide, the important component of reactive oxygen species, detoxification during xylose alcoholic fermentation. It was clearly shown that CTA1 deletion impaired ethanol production from xylose. It was found that enhancing the peroxisome population by modulation the peroxisomal biogenesis by overexpression of PEX34 activates xylose alcoholic fermentation.     

Fermentation of lactose to bio-ethanol by yeasts as part of integrated solutions for the valorisation of cheese whey

Cheese whey, the main dairy by-product, is increasingly recognized as a source of many bioactive valuable compounds. Nevertheless, the most abundant component in whey is lactose (ca. 5% w/v), which represents a significant environmental problem. Due to the large lactose surplus generated, its conversion to bio-ethanol has long been considered as a possible solution for whey bioremediation. In this review, fermentation of lactose to ethanol is discussed, focusing on wild lactose-fermenting yeasts, particularly Kluyveromyces marxianus, and recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains. The early efforts in the screening and characterization of the fermentation properties of wild lactose-consuming yeasts are reviewed. Furthermore, emphasis is given on the latter advances in engineering S. cerevisiae strains for efficient whey-to-ethanol bioprocesses. Examples of industrial implementation are briefly discussed, illustrating the viability of whey-to-ethanol systems. Current developments on strain engineering together with the growing market for biofuels will likely boost the industrial interest in such processes.     

Alcoholic fermentation of carbon sources in biomass hydrolysates by Saccharomyces cerevisiae: current status

Fuel ethanol production from plant biomass hydrolysates by Saccharomyces cerevisiae is of great economic and environmental significance. This paper reviews the current status with respect to alcoholic fermentation of the main plant biomass-derived monosaccharides by this yeast. Wild-type S. cerevisiae strains readily ferment glucose, mannose and fructose via the Embden–Meyerhof pathway of glycolysis, while galactose is fermented via the Leloir pathway. Construction of yeast strains that efficiently convert other potentially fermentable substrates in plant biomass hydrolysates into ethanol is a major challenge in metabolic engineering. The most abundant of these compounds is xylose. Recent metabolic and evolutionary engineering studies on S. cerevisiae strains that express a fungal xylose isomerase have enabled the rapid and efficient␣anaerobic fermentation of this pentose. l-Arabinose fermentation, based on the expression of a prokaryotic pathway in S. cerevisiae, has also been established, but needs further optimization before it can be considered for industrial implementation. In addition to these already investigated strategies, possible approaches for metabolic engineering of galacturonic acid and rhamnose fermentation by S. cerevisiae are discussed. An emerging and major challenge is to achieve the rapid transition from proof-of-principle experiments under ‘academic’ conditions (synthetic media, single substrates or simple substrate mixtures, absence of toxic inhibitors) towards efficient conversion of complex industrial substrate mixtures that contain synergistically acting inhibitors.     

Integrated genomics and phenotype microarray analysis of Saccharomyces cerevisiae industrial strains for rice wine fermentation and recombinant protein production

The industrial potential of Saccharomyces cerevisiae has extended beyond its traditional use in fermentation to various applications, including recombinant protein production. Herein, comparative genomics was performed with three industrial S. cerevisiae strains and revealed a heterozygous diploid genome for the 98-5 and KSD-YC strains (exploited for rice wine fermentation) and a haploid genome for strain Y2805 (used for recombinant protein production). Phylogenomic analysis indicated that Y2805 was closely associated with the reference strain S288C, whereas KSD-YC and 98-5 were grouped with Asian and European wine strains, respectively. Particularly, a single nucleotide polymorphism (SNP) in FDC1, involved in the biosynthesis of 4-vinylguaiacol (4-VG, a phenolic compound with a clove-like aroma), was found in KSD-YC, consistent with its lack of 4-VG production. Phenotype microarray (PM) analysis showed that KSD-YC and 98-5 displayed broader substrate utilization than S288C and Y2805. The SNPs detected by genome comparison were mapped to the genes responsible for the observed phenotypic differences. In addition, detailed information on the structural organization of Y2805 selection markers was validated by Sanger sequencing. Integrated genomics and PM analysis elucidated the evolutionary history and genetic diversity of industrial S. cerevisiae strains, providing a platform to improve fermentation processes and genetic manipulation.     

不同信号肽对酿酒酵母蔗糖转化酶Suc2分泌表达水平的影响

目前，绝大多数酿酒酵母（Saccharomyces cerevisiae）菌株利用菊糖生产乙醇的能力有限，而蔗糖转化酶Suc2是酿酒酵母水解菊糖的关键酶，其分泌水平直接影响酿酒酵母转化菊糖为乙醇的性能。为提高酿酒酵母中蔗糖转化酶Suc2的分泌表达水平，利用生物信息学的分析方法选择出11种不同的分泌信号肽，包括酿酒酵母内源性、其他菌株来源以及已报道序列优化改造的信号肽，将它们融合至Suc2并构建了相应的酿酒酵母BY4741重组菌。其中，酿酒酵母内源分泌信号肽AGA2能使蔗糖转化酶Suc2更有效的分泌，含有信号肽AGA2的重组菌BY-AG的蔗糖酶酶活和菊糖酶酶活相对于含有天然信号肽的原始菌BY-S分别提高42%和26%，其利用菊糖产乙醇能力较原始菌提高了32%，乙醇产量达到78.11 g/L。在使用毕赤酵母（Pichia pastoris）分泌信号肽MSB2时，蔗糖转化酶Suc2的分泌水平也有提高，含有信号肽MSB2的重组菌BY-MS较原始菌BY-S的蔗糖酶酶活和菊糖酶酶活分别提高了80%和74%，同时，利用菊糖产乙醇能力也提高了56%，产量达到86.31 g/L。最后，对重组菌BY-MS摇瓶发酵过程中的生物量、蔗糖酶酶活、残糖总量和乙醇产量进行了监测，结果表明，重组菌BY-MS的发酵性能较原始菌BY-S有显著提高。本研究为提高蔗糖转化酶Suc2的分泌水平、构建高效菊糖基乙醇生产菌株提供参考。     

Genome-wide identification of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</Emphasis> genes required for tolerance to acetic acid

Background  

Acetic acid is a byproduct of Saccharomyces cerevisiae alcoholic fermentation. Together with high concentrations of ethanol and other toxic metabolites, acetic acid may contribute to fermentation arrest and reduced ethanol productivity. This weak acid is also a present in lignocellulosic hydrolysates, a highly interesting non-feedstock substrate in industrial biotechnology. Therefore, the better understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying S. cerevisiae tolerance to acetic acid is essential for the rational selection of optimal fermentation conditions and the engineering of more robust industrial strains to be used in processes in which yeast is explored as cell factory.     

Alcoholic fermentation by wild-type <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hansenula polymorpha</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</Emphasis> versus recombinant strains with an elevated level of intracellular glutathione

The ability of baker’s yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae and of the thermotolerant methylotrophic yeast Hansenula polymorpha to produce ethanol during alcoholic fermentation of glucose was compared between wild-type strains and recombinant strains possessing an elevated level of intracellular glutathione (GSH) due to overexpression of the first gene of GSH biosynthesis, gamma-glutamylcysteine synthetase, or of the central regulatory gene of sulfur metabolism, MET4. The analyzed strains of H. polymorpha with an elevated pool of intracellular GSH were found to accumulate almost twice as much ethanol as the wild-type strain during glucose fermentation, in contrast to GSH1-overexpressing S. cerevisiae strains, which also possessed an elevated pool of GSH. The ethanol tolerance of the GSH-overproducing strains was also determined. For this, the wild-type strain and transformants with an elevated GSH pool were compared for their viability upon exposure to exogenous ethanol. Unexpectedly, both S. cerevisiae and H. polymorpha transformants with a high GSH pool proved more sensitive to exogenous ethanol than the corresponding wild-type strains.     

The use of killer biotyping in an ecological survey of yeast in an old patagonian winery

An ecological study of Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains in spontaneous alcoholic fermentation has been made in the same winery on two consecutive years (1993 and 1994) with Merlot type musts, and with Malbec type must on a third year (1998). Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains associated with winery surfaces were also analysed. Differential killer sensitivity patterns related to a killer reference panel of 10 killer yeasts belonging to nine species of four genera were used as a quick and simple procedure to discriminate between indigenous S. cerevisiae isolates at the strain level. Although a great diversity of wild strains was observed, two main indigenous S. cerevisiae strains, designated as S. cerevisiae 9 and S. cerevisiae 13, took over the Merlot type fermentation in both years. These strains also appeared in Malbec must fermentation during the year 1998 and they were again found on the winery surface the next year. These results show that some few and stable indigenous S. cerevisiae strains remained in the environmental winery over the considered period of time (1993–1999) and they represent an additional evidence of the taking over of musts by local strains of S. cerevisiae.     

可同化阿拉伯糖的木糖还原酿酒酵母菌株构建

[目的] 以秸秆等木质纤维素类生物质为原料生产液体生物燃料乙醇,目前生产成本高,大规模工业化生产尚有较大难度。构建能同化阿拉伯糖进行木糖还原生产木糖醇的重组酿酒酵母菌株,以实现原料中全糖利用、生产高附加值产品,实现产品多元化。[方法] 首先,利用CRISPR/Cas9基因编辑技术依次向出发菌株中导入阿拉伯糖代谢途径和木糖还原酶基因,使菌株获得代谢阿拉伯糖和将木糖转化为木糖醇的能力;其次,通过适应性驯化的进化工程手段,提高重组菌株对阿拉伯糖的利用效率;最后,通过混合糖发酵验证重组菌株利用阿拉伯糖和还原木糖产木糖醇的能力。[结果] 通过导入植物乳杆菌的阿拉伯糖代谢途径,酿酒酵母菌株获得了较好的利用阿拉伯糖生长繁殖的能力;进一步导入假丝酵母的木糖还原酶基因后,重组菌株在葡萄糖作为辅助碳源条件下可高效还原木糖产木糖醇,但阿拉伯糖的利用能力下降。利用以阿拉伯糖为唯一碳源的培养基进行反复批次驯化,阿拉伯糖的利用能力得以恢复和提升,得到表型较好的重组菌株KAX3-2。该菌株在木糖（50 g/L）和阿拉伯糖（20 g/L）混合糖发酵条件下发酵72 h时,对阿拉伯糖和木糖利用率分别达到42.1%和65.9%,木糖醇的收率为64%。[结论] 本研究成功构建了一株能有效利用阿拉伯糖并能将木糖转化为木糖醇的重组酿酒酵母菌株KAX3-2,为后续构建、获得阿拉伯糖代谢能力更强、木糖醇积累效率更高菌株的工作奠定了基础。     

Engineering of a matched pair of xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase for xylose fermentation by Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Metabolic engineering of Saccharomyces cerevisiae for xylose fermentation has often relied on insertion of a heterologous pathway consisting of nicotinamide adenine dinucleotide (phosphate) NAD(P)H-dependent xylose reductase (XR) and NAD⁺-dependent xylitol dehydrogenase (XDH). Low ethanol yield, formation of xylitol and other fermentation by-products are seen for many of the S. cerevisiae strains constructed in this way. This has been ascribed to incomplete coenzyme recycling in the steps catalyzed by XR and XDH. Despite various protein-engineering efforts to alter the coenzyme specificity of XR and XDH individually, a pair of enzymes displaying matched utilization of NAD(H) and NADP(H) was not previously reported. We have introduced multiple site-directed mutations in the coenzyme-binding pocket of Galactocandida mastotermitis XDH to enable activity with NADP⁺, which is lacking in the wild-type enzyme. We describe four enzyme variants showing activity for xylitol oxidation by NADP⁺ and NAD⁺. One of the XDH variants utilized NADP⁺ about 4 times more efficiently than NAD⁺. This is close to the preference for NADPH compared with NADH in mutants of Candida tenuis XR. Compared to an S. cerevisiae-reference strain expressing the genes for the wild-type enzymes, the strains comprising the gene encoding the mutated XDH in combination a matched XR mutant gene showed up to 50% decreased glycerol yield without increase in ethanol during xylose fermentation.     

Transgenic wine yeast technology comes of age: is it time for transgenic wine?

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is the main yeast responsible for alcoholic fermentation of grape juice during wine making. This makes wine strains of this species perfect targets for the improvement of wine technology and quality. Progress in winemaking has been achieved through the use of selected yeast strains, as well as genetic improvement of wine yeast strains through the sexual and pararexual cycles, random mutagenesis and genetic engineering. Development of genetically engineered wine yeasts, their potential application, and factors affecting their commercial viability will be discussed in this review.     

An optimized procedure for the enological selection of non-<Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces</Emphasis> starter cultures

The apiculate yeasts are the species predominating the first stage of grape must alcoholic fermentation and are important for the production of desired volatile compounds. The aim of the present investigation was to establish a protocol for the enological selection of non-Saccharomyces strains directly isolated from a natural must fermentation during the tumultuous phase. At this scope, fifty Hanseniaspora uvarum isolates were characterized at strain level by employing a new combined PCR-based approach. One isolate representative of each identified strain was used in fermentation assays to assess strain-specific enological properties. The chemical analysis indicated that all the analyzed strains were low producers of acetic acid and hydrogen sulphide, whereas they showed fructophilic character and high glycerol production. Analysis of volatile compounds indicated that one strain could positively affect, during the alcoholic fermentation process, the taste and flavour of alcoholic beverages. The statistical evaluation of obtained results indicated that the selected autochthonous H. uvarum strain possessed physiological and technological properties which satisfy the criteria indicated for non-Saccharomyces wine yeasts selection. Our data suggest that the described protocol could be advantageously applied for the selection of non-Saccharomyces strains suitable for the formulation of mixed or sequential starters together with Saccharomyces cerevisiae.     

Genome-wide identification of the targets for genetic manipulation to improve l-lactate production by Saccharomyces cerevisiae by using a single-gene deletion strain collection

To identify genome-wide targets for gene manipulation for increasing l-lactate production in recombinant Saccharomyces cerevisiae strains, we transformed all available single-gene deletion strains of S. cerevisiae with a plasmid carrying the human l-lactate dehydrogenase gene, and examined l-lactate production in the obtained transformants. The thresholds of increased or decreased l-lactate production were determined based on l-lactate production by the standard strain in repetitive experiments. l-lactate production data for 4802 deletion strains were obtained, and deletion strains with increased or decreased l-lactate production were identified. Functional category analysis of genes whose deletion increased l-lactate production revealed that ribosome biogenesis-related genes were overrepresented. Most deletion strains for genes related to ribosome biogenesis exhibited increased l-lactate production in 200-ml batch cultures. We deleted the genes related to ribosome biogenesis in a recombinant strain of S. cerevisiae with a genetic background different from that of the above deletion strains, and examined the effect of target gene deletion on l-lactate production. We observed that deletion of genes related to ribosome biogenesis leads to increased l-lactate production by recombinant S. cerevisiae strains, and the single-gene deletion strain collection could be utilized in identifying target genes for improving l-lactate production in S. cerevisiae recombinant strains.     

Role of killer character in spontaneous fermentations from NW Spain: ecology,distribution and significance

Summary The presence of killer, resistant and sensitive populations of Saccharomyces cerevisiae along the successive stages of alcoholic fermentation in three vineyards from NW Spain was investigated. The global results showed that approximately 71% were killer-sensitive strains, 6.6% were killer-resistant, and 22.4% belonged to the k₂ killer type. However, there were important differences concerning the presence of the three phenotypes during successive stages of fermentation. Killer populations were isolated at the highest percentages in samples from must and from active alcoholic fermentations. Killer-resistant strains steadily increased during fermentation. Additionally, important differences in these populations were observed among the three vineyards. In this sense, the presence of killer populations was more important in samples from the vineyards with higher average pH values of the must. However, great differences in the distribution of killer phenotype between successive vintages (with the same initial pH of must) belonging to the same vineyard implies the presence of other factors effecting killer behaviour. Offprint requests to: T. G. Villa     

High activity of xylose reductase and xylitol dehydrogenase improves xylose fermentation by recombinant <Emphasis Type="Italic">Saccharomyces cerevisiae</Emphasis>

Xylose fermentation performance was studied of a previously developed Saccharomyces cerevisiae strain TMB 3057, carrying high xylose reductase (XR) and xylitol dehydrogenase (XDH) activity, overexpressed non-oxidative pentose phosphate pathway (PPP) and deletion of the aldose reductase gene GRE3. The fermentation performance of TMB 3057 was significantly improved by increased ethanol production and reduced xylitol formation compared with the reference strain TMB 3001. The effects of the individual genetic modifications on xylose fermentation were investigated by comparing five isogenic strains with single or combined modifications. All strains with high activity of both XR and XDH had increased ethanol yields and significantly decreased xylitol yields. The presence of glucose further reduced xylitol formation in all studied strains. High activity of the non-oxidative PPP improved the xylose consumption rate. The results indicate that ethanolic xylose fermentation by recombinant S. cerevisiae expressing XR and XDH is governed by the efficiency by which xylose is introduced in the central metabolism.