Learning to live with black bears: A psychological model of acceptance

The reappearance and recovery of large carnivores in human-dominated landscapes creates a need to understand how people will respond to the presence of these animals. We tested a psychological model of acceptance to determine what variables most influence people's acceptance for black bears (Ursus americanus) in an area with an emerging black bear population (Ohio, USA). We hypothesized that people's perceptions of risk and benefit related to bears would mediate the effect of trust (in wildlife management agencies) and personal control (over interactions with and management of wildlife) on acceptance for black bears. We used a mail-back survey of Ohio residents (n = 9,400; adjusted response rate = 35%) to assess the variables of interest and test the hypothesized model. Based on multiple criteria of model fit, the hypothesized model fit the data acceptably well. The model explained approximately 62% of the variance in acceptance, and perception of risk associated with black bears had the largest impact on the level of acceptance. As large carnivore populations expand and interactions with humans increase, our results will aid managers in designing outreach materials and communications aimed at promoting acceptance for large carnivores. Our model suggests that interventions raising an individual's social trust in the managing agency, or personal control can indirectly raise stakeholders' acceptance by reducing risk perception and increasing perception of benefit from carnivores. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

Can Public Meetings Accurately Reflect Public Attitudes Toward Wildlife Management?

Abstract: State wildlife agencies often use input obtained through public meetings to develop management policies. Because public meetings can be dominated by single stakeholder groups, these policies may not reflect the attitudes of new wildlife stakeholders. In 2000 the Utah Wildlife Board, after a series of public meetings, adopted a statewide policy for winter-feeding mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus). The policy was implemented by the Utah Division of Wildlife Resources from 2001 to 2007 in Cache County of northern Utah, USA. In 2007, we surveyed Utah households representing metropolitan, nonmetropolitan, and Cache County residents (n = 1,800) to evaluate whether the winter-feeding policy reflected the attitudes of all wildlife stakeholders. Survey respondents, regardless of residence strata, believed winterfeeding programs were essential for managing mule deer in Utah (χ²₆ = 7.02, P = 0.32). However, most respondents were reluctant to support feeding programs at the expense of habitat restoration projects (χ²₆ = 11.64, P = 0.07). Our results suggest that the winter-feeding policy represented the attitudes of the Utah residents surveyed, though few had participated in its development. Respondents' strong utilitarian attitudes toward wildlife (e.g., strong support for hunting and feeding) influenced those respondents' perceptions of the policy. Given the effects of increased urbanization on utilitarian attitudes toward wildlife in many parts of the United States, coupled with decreasing numbers of traditional wildlife stakeholders, state wildlife agencies should continually reevaluate their public involvement processes to ensure new wildlife stakeholders' attitudes and concerns are represented.     

Factors that Determine Human Acceptance of Black Bears

After being extirpated from their historical distribution, black bears (Ursus americanus) have recolonized eastern Oklahoma, USA. As bears continue to establish populations in the region, understanding the cognitive factors that influence human acceptance of black bears will play an important role in facilitating coexistence. We hypothesized that a variety of variables drawing from the cognitive hierarchy and risk perception frameworks would affect human acceptance of black bears in eastern Oklahoma. We collected data using a mail-back questionnaire administered to residents of eastern Oklahoma between August and November 2018. Perceptions of the current black bear population size, attitudes toward bears, valuing Oklahoma wildlife, behavioral intentions, and level of formal education all positively influenced acceptance of bears. Risk-averse respondents and women were less accepting. Outreach to women and encouraging residents to reduce conflict by adopting bear-safe behaviors may help raise acceptance capacity for black bears. © 2021 The Wildlife Society.     

Acceptance of Deer Management Strategies by Suburban Homeowners and Bowhunters

Abstract: More communities are experiencing problems associated with overabundant white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations. Public acceptance of approaches for managing deer may differ within communities. Although hunting with firearms is a common practice used to manage deer populations, many suburban communities only allow bowhunting. Our objectives were to assess suburban homeowners and bowhunters acceptance of lethal and nonlethal deer management strategies. Additionally, we wanted to determine homeowner willingness to pay for deer management and how long they would be willing to wait for relief to address conflicts caused by deer overabundance. Most homeowners supported using lethal strategies to reduce and manage deer populations. Most homeowners were unaware of the cost (94%) or effectiveness (92%) of birth control agents to manage free-ranging deer populations. Of lethal strategies, bowhunting was preferred. Establishment of a special crossbow season outside the existing archery season received the greatest support by bowhunters and was also acceptable to homeowners. As landscapes progressed from rural to more urban, hunting access, human-wildlife conflicts, and homeowner willingness to pay for deer management decreased. Regardless of management strategy, most homeowners were willing to wait 3-5 years to achieve a desired reduction in the deer population at no cost to them. As costs increased, homeowner willingness to wait decreased. Because exposure, tolerance of deer, and willingness to pay for management varies by landscapes, towns with diverse landscapes should consider developing regional rather than town-wide plans to manage overabundant deer populations.     

Wildlife Interactions within Highway Underpasses

Highway underpasses are a common management tool used to lessen wildlife-vehicle collisions on roadways. Despite their widespread use, the effects of predator-prey interactions and human disturbances on wildlife within underpasses have not been well studied. To understand the effect of species interactions and human disturbances on wildlife traveling through underpasses, we analyzed camera data from 3 underpasses in Hallelujah Junction Wildlife Area, Sierra County, California, USA, from June 2017 to December 2018. We recorded 3,589 detections, which were predominately mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus), rodents, lagomorphs, California quail (Callipepla californica), bobcats (Lynx rufus), mountain lions (Puma concolor), and coyotes (Canis latrans). We used occupancy modeling and daily activity estimates to analyze species' spatial and temporal activity within the underpasses. Predator-prey interactions and human disturbances were among the most important factors that influenced wildlife travel through the underpasses. Mule deer avoided underpasses highly used by mountain lions, and mountain lions followed mule deer daily temporal activity patterns and seasonal activity patterns. These results indicate that predator-prey interactions influenced deer and mountain lion use of the underpasses. Coyotes favored underpasses and seasons with higher rodent and lagomorph presence, suggesting that the presence of prey was also important to coyote use of the underpasses. Coyotes, mountain lions, and bobcats all exhibited either temporal or spatial avoidance of human activity within the underpasses. California quail avoided predators within the underpasses and favored underpasses and times with high human activity. Our study suggests that underpass managers need to closely monitor the effect of predator-prey interactions and human activity on wildlife within underpasses to ensure these interactions do not discourage wildlife from using them. © 2019 The Wildlife Society.     

Red oak seedlings as indicators of deer browse pressure: Gauging the outcome of different white‐tailed deer management approaches

After decades of high deer populations, North American forests have lost much of their previous biodiversity. Any landscape‐level recovery requires substantial reductions in deer herds, but modern societies and wildlife management agencies appear unable to devise appropriate solutions to this chronic ecological and human health crisis. We evaluated the effectiveness of fertility control and hunting in reducing deer impacts at Cornell University. We estimated spring deer populations and planted Quercus rubra seedlings to assess deer browse pressure, rodent attack, and other factors compromising seedling performance. Oak seedlings protected in cages grew well, but deer annually browsed ≥60% of unprotected seedlings. Despite female sterilization rates of >90%, the deer population remained stable. Neither sterilization nor recreational hunting reduced deer browse rates and neither appears able to achieve reductions in deer populations or their impacts. We eliminated deer sterilization and recreational hunting in a core management area in favor of allowing volunteer archers to shoot deer over bait, including at night. This resulted in a substantial reduction in the deer population and a linear decline in browse rates as a function of spring deer abundance. Public trust stewardship of North American landscapes will require a fundamental overhaul in deer management to provide for a brighter future, and oak seedlings may be a promising metric to assess success. These changes will require intense public debate and may require new approaches such as regulated commercial hunting, natural dispersal, or intentional release of important deer predators (e.g., wolves and mountain lions). Such drastic changes in deer management will be highly controversial, and at present, likely difficult to implement in North America. However, the future of our forest ecosystems and their associated biodiversity will depend on evidence to guide change in landscape management and stewardship.     

Embracing Complexity and Context to Improve Science Communication

Members of the public play a primary role in successful implementation of wildlife management plans, making communication between scientists and the public a vital component of wildlife management. Although there is substantial public interest in the health of ungulate populations, stakeholder perspectives can vary widely, rendering a single approach to communication ineffective. To improve science communication, we characterized perspectives regarding issues negatively affecting mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) in Wyoming, USA. We used Q methodology, a mixed quantitative-qualitative approach where participants ranked a series of statements followed by semi-structured interviews, to identify shared perspectives. We interviewed individuals (n = 37) representing prominent stakeholder groups (e.g., ranchers, hunters, conservation non-profits) in Wyoming. We identified 3 perspectives (52% of variance explained) that captured shared views regarding what factors are negatively affecting mule deer: bottom-up (n = 17 participants; 26% variance), human contributions (n = 9; 14% variance), and top-down (n = 8; 12% variance) perspectives. Most participants shared the idea that mule deer are being negatively affected, but participants diverged in views as to the primary issues. Perspectives ranged from being focused on bottom-up factors (e.g., habitat fragmentation, condition of winter ranges) to top-down factors (e.g., predation, disease) to factors focused on human contributions (e.g., human activity, public and political interests). Based on how participants diverged in perspectives and their interest in mule deer management, we discuss opportunities for scientists to improve communication by incorporating ecological complexity and nuance, moving towards a 2-way dialogue of communication, and sharing their own first-hand experiences in future communications with stakeholders. © 2021 The Authors. The Journal of Wildlife Management published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of The Wildlife Society.     

Space Use and Survival of White-Tailed Deer in an Exurban Landscape

Abstract: Exurban development is nonmetropolitan, residential development characterized by a human population density and average property size intermediate between suburban and rural areas. Although growth in exurban areas is outpacing that of urban, suburban, or rural landscapes, studies of deer (Odocoileus spp.) ecology in exurban areas are nonexistent. During 2003–2005, we studied space use (i.e., seasonal home-range and core-area size and habitat use relative to human dwellings) and survival of 43 female white-tailed deer (O. virginianus) in an exurban setting near Carbondale, Illinois. Deer had larger home ranges than most suburban deer populations and generally smaller home ranges than rural deer populations. When we analytically controlled for habitat use, deer exhibited a subtle avoidance of human dwellings, especially during the fawning season. The annual survival rate was among the highest reported in the literature at 0.872 (SE = 0.048). Only 5 deer (cause-specific mortality rate = 0.091) were harvested by hunters, indicating major obstacles for wildlife managers when attempting to manage deer in exurban areas using traditional hunter harvest.     

Predicting spatial distribution of human–black bear interactions in urban areas

Human–wildlife interactions are often associated with a myriad of stakeholder groups, intense political scrutiny, and limited biological data, creating complex decision-making situations for wildlife management agencies. Limited research exists on the development and testing of tools (e.g., models to predict the spatial distribution of interactions) to reduce human–black bear (Ursus americanus) interactions (HBI). Available models predicting spatial distribution of HBI are usually developed at scales too large to predict across urban areas, are rarely tested against independent data sets, and usually do not incorporate both landscape and anthropogenic variables. Our objective was to develop a predictive modeling tool that could identify areas of high conflict potential across urban landscapes. We compared locations of HBI in Missoula, MT, recorded by Montana Fish, Wildlife & Parks from 2003 to 2008, to random locations using logistic regression. The final model discriminated the relative spatial probability of HBI within Missoula well, and a second study area moderately. The probability of HBI in Missoula increased when residents lived close to forested patches and major rivers and streams and in intermediate housing densities (approx. 6.59 houses/ha). Our results provide a wildlife management tool and a repeatable statistical framework that predicts spatial distribution of HBI using only a small set of variables. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

Genetic assessment of environmental features that influence deer dispersal: implications for prion-infected populations

The landscape can influence host dispersal and density, which in turn, affect infectious disease transmission, spread, and persistence. Understanding how the landscape influences wildlife dispersal and pathogen epidemiology can enhance the efficacy of disease management in natural populations. We applied landscape genetics to examine relationships among landscape variables, dispersal of white-tailed deer hosts and transmission/spread of chronic wasting disease (CWD), a fatal prion encephalopathy. Our focus was on quantifying movements and population structure of host deer in infected areas as a means of predicting the spread of this pathology and promoting its adaptive management. We analyzed microsatellite genotypes of CWD-infected and uninfected deer from two disease foci (Southern Wisconsin, Northern Illinois). We quantified gene flow and population structure using F _ST, assignment tests, and spatial autocorrelation analyses. Gene flow estimates were then contrasted against a suite of landscape variables that potentially mediate deer dispersal. Forest fragmentation and grassland connectivity promoted deer movements while rivers, agricultural fields and large urbanized areas impeded movement. Landscape variables, deer dispersal, and disease transmission covaried significantly and positively in our analyses. Habitats with elevated host gene flow supported the concept of dispersal-mediated CWD transmission by reflecting a concomitant, rapid CWD expansion. Large, interrelated social groups isolated by movement barriers overlapped disease foci, suggesting that philopatry exacerbated CWD transmission. Our results promote adaptive management of CWD by predicting patterns of its spread and identifying habitats at risk for invasion. Further, our landscape genetics approach underscores the significance of topography and host behavior in wildlife disease transmission.     

The impact of management practices and past demographic history on the genetic diversity of red deer (Cervus elaphus): an assessment of population and individual fitness

The influences of management practices and past demographic history on genetic diversity are of critical relevance to sustainable practices and the conservation of wildlife populations. The red deer (Cervus elaphus) is an interesting model species to address these questions because it has a wide geographical distribution and it has been intensively managed for humans in the last decades. In the present study, we have analyzed the impact of recent management practices on the genetic diversity of Iberian red deer populations and assessed the genetic variation effects on population and individual fitness‐related traits. Four populations subjected to distinct management systems were selected: Cabañeros (CB) and Doñana (DN), not hunted populations; Fraga/Caspe (FG/CP), open hunting area with very low or absent management; and PE, fenced private hunting estate founded 31 years ago through the introduction of deer of different origins. Ten microsatellites were amplified in a total of 172 individuals. Additionally, several fitness‐related traits such as the presence of tuberculosis compatible lesions (TBCL), spleen weight (SW), and body length (BL) were estimated. We found a marked genetic variation and differentiation among populations, suggesting a strong population structure. In the fenced population, the introduction of genetically distinct animals has led to high genetic variability (no evidence of inbreeding) despite intensive management. Lower levels of genetic diversity were observed in two historically isolated natural populations (DN and FG/CP). The past demographic history of Iberian populations appears to be more relevant than the current management policy in shaping the genetic variability of natural populations. Population genetic diversity may correlate with life‐history traits and disease susceptibility, which could compromise the conservation and management of these wildlife populations. Although no significant effects of individual genetic diversity (general and local effect hypotheses) were observed on TBCL, SW and BL, some single‐locus effects had almost significant trends for the TBCL and SW traits. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2014, 111 , 209–223.     

国家公园原住民对野生动物肇事的认知、意愿及其影响因素——以武夷山国家公园为例

国家公园原住民对野生动物肇事的态度直接影响野生动物保护政策有效实施以及人与野生动物共存机制。迄今,学术界鲜有从原住民认知与意愿角度探讨野生动物肇事的成果,基于自然保护地国家公园的相关研究尚未见报道。根据449份有效调查问卷及深度访谈数据,论文采用有序多分类Logistic回归方法,探讨武夷山国家公园原住民对野生动物肇事的认知、意愿及其影响因素。结果表明：（1）多数原住民经历过野生动物肇事,其农作物及牲畜受到严重损害,野猪（Sus scrofa）为研究区域主要的肇事动物。（2）种群数量增加、食物短缺和生存空间受限是野生动物肇事的主要原因。（3）学历、经历及认可政府应对肇事的方式对原住民防范野生动物肇事意愿的影响显著。在此基础上,提出遵循生态规律、保护栖息地、提升认知与意愿、实行社区共管、建立野生动物致害补偿机制以及引入野生动物致害赔偿保险等对策,希望能够深化对野生动物肇事特征及机理的科学认识,为有效缓解人与野生动物冲突、推进国家公园人与野生动物和谐提供政策参考。     

Protecting wildlife from predation by owned domestic cats: Application of a precautionary approach to the acceptability of proposed cat regulations

Abstract While it is undeniable that owned domestic cats Felis catus (Mammalia: Felidae) kill large numbers of wildlife, it is contentious if this has significant impacts on wildlife populations. Under the precautionary principle such uncertainty does not preclude measures to reduce putative risk, but action should follow consultation with stakeholders. To initiate such consultation for the City of Armadale, Western Australia, we surveyed urban and rural residents to determine their opinions regarding putative impacts of owned cats on wildlife and the acceptability of proposed regulations. Key statements accepted by 70% or more of respondents, irrespective of their residence, gender or cat ownership status, included: (i) there is a need to regulate owned domestic cats; (ii) the presence of cats in nature reserves is harmful to wildlife; (iii) cats not owned by licensed breeders should be desexed; and (iv) local councils should be empowered to restrict the maximum number of cats per household. Seventy per cent or more of owners agreed to keep their cats on their property from sunset to sunrise and to register them if these measures became compulsory. All groups except urban men also indicated 70% or greater willingness to keep their cats on their property constantly if required. However, fewer than 40% of owners supported empowering local councils to enforce cat‐free zones. In this community, cat regulation excluding cat‐free zones should enjoy support. Similar approaches should be effective wherever the environmental impacts of owned domestic cats are debated, because compliance with such regulations should be high.     

Crop,Native Vegetation,and Biofuels: Response of White-Tailed Deer to Changing Management Priorities

ABSTRACT The expansion of the cellulosic biofuels industry throughout the United States has broad-scale implications for wildlife management on public and private lands. Knowledge is limited on the effects of reverting agriculture to native grass, and vice versa, on size of home range and habitat use of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus). We followed 68 radiocollared female deer from 1991 through 2004 that were residents of DeSoto National Wildlife Refuge (DNWR) in eastern Nebraska, USA. The refuge was undergoing conversion of vegetation out of row-crop agriculture and into native grass, forest, and emergent aquatic vegetation. Habitat in DNWR consisted of 30% crop in 1991 but removing crops to establish native grass and wetland habitat at DNWR resulted in a 44% reduction in crops by 2004. A decrease in the amount of crops on DNWR contributed to a decline in mean size of annual home range from 400 ha in 1991 to 200 ha in 2005 but percentage of crops in home ranges increased from 21% to 29%. Mean overlap for individuals was 77% between consecutive annual home ranges across 8 years, regardless of crop availability. Conversion of crop to native habitat will not likely result in home range abandonment but may impact disease transmission by increasing rates of contact between deer social groups that occupy adjacent areas. Future research on condition indices or changes in population parameters (e.g., recruitment) could be incorporated into the study design to assess impacts of habitat conversion for biofuel production.     

Influence of Landscape Composition and Structure on Antler Size of White-Tailed Deer

Abstract: Cause for spatial variation in phenotypic quality of white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) populations is of great interest to wildlife managers. Relating phenotypic variation of populations to large-scale land-use patterns may provide insight into why populations exhibit spatial variation and elucidate how management can influence population phenotype. We used an information-theoretic approach to relate average antler size of 203 deer populations to composition and structure of the habitat occupied by those populations. We used interspersion, edge, and diversity indices to represent habitat structure and percentage of area in vegetation types to represent habitat composition. Landscape composition was a better predictor of deer population antler size than was landscape structure. Percentages of the management unit in agriculture, pasture, and pine forest were variables commonly found in the region-specific set of best models. Model-averaged estimates of agriculture and pasture parameters were always positive and estimates of pine forest parameters were always negative, which suggests that land-use types that promote growth of early successional herbaceous plants will positively influence antler size and, most likely, body growth and reproduction of white-tailed deer populations. Conversely, our findings suggest landscapes dominated by pine forests did not provide optimal amounts of quality forages for white-tailed deer. Pine forest effects should be mitigated using a combination of increased harvest to lower deer density and silvicultural practices like thinning, prescribed burning, and selective herbicide applications that stimulate growth of high-quality forages beneath the forest canopy to improve deer phenotypic quality.     

Local people’s perceptions of wildlife species in two distinct landscapes of Northern Tanzania

Local attitudes towards wildlife species are key for the coexistence between humans and wildlife. To assess how economic, social, and psychological factors affect human perception of wildlife species we conducted questionnaire surveys in two ecologically and culturally distinct rural areas of Northern Tanzania (Mbulu Plateau highlands and Rift Valley lowlands). Using responses of 356 individuals we determined local preferences for population sizes of 31 wildlife species. For five of these species or species groups (rodents, hyena, birds of prey, African elephant, jackal), more than 30% of participants desired a population decline. To investigate correlates for desired population reductions of these species, we ran species-specific (five listed species and African lion) and study area-specific generalized linear mixed models that accounted for spatial autocorrelation. Using these models we assessed relationships between the likelihood of respondents desiring a population decline and six hypothesized explanatory variables: gender; age; ethnicity, and wealth of participant; perceived frequency of negative interactions with; and fear of each species. In both the highland and lowland and for all species, participants that perceived higher instances of negative interactions with wildlife were more likely to prefer smaller future populations, but relationships between perceived frequency of negative interactions and attitudes were often non-linear. People who feared a species were also more likely to desire a population decline. Other variables (gender, age, ethnicity, wealth) showed species- and area-level variations, and we observed substantial spatial variation in expressed attitudes towards species. Thus, negative attitudes towards wildlife appear to be mainly associated with past (negative) experiences and fear, but not necessarily with associated costs or socio-demographic variables. To ensure coexistence between wildlife and humans, we suggest (1) wildlife damage prevention through technical measures and (2) educational initiatives to increase positive attitudes towards wildlife.     

Geo-Spatial Aspects of Acceptance of Illegal Hunting of Large Carnivores in Scandinavia

Human-carnivore conflicts are complex and are influenced by: the spatial distribution of the conflict species; the organisation and intensity of management measures such as zoning; historical experience with wildlife; land use patterns; and local cultural traditions. We have used a geographically stratified sampling of social values and attitudes to provide a novel perspective to the human – wildlife conflict. We have focused on acceptance by and disagreements between residents (measured as Potential Conflict Index; PCI) towards illegal hunting of four species of large carnivores (bear, lynx, wolf, wolverine). The study is based on surveys of residents in every municipality in Sweden and Norway who were asked their opinion on illegal hunting. Our results show how certain social values are associated with acceptance of poaching, and how these values differ geographically independent of carnivore abundance. Our approach differs from traditional survey designs, which are often biased towards urban areas. Although these traditional designs intend to be representative of a region (i.e. a random sample from a country), they tend to receive relatively few respondents from rural areas that experience the majority of conflict with carnivores. Acceptance of poaching differed significantly between Norway (12.7–15.7% of respondents) and Sweden (3.3–4.1% of respondents). We found the highest acceptance of illegal hunting in rural areas with free-ranging sheep and strong hunting traditions. Disagreements between residents (as measured by PCI) were highest in areas with intermediate population density. There was no correlation between carnivore density and either acceptance of illegal hunting or PCI. A strong positive correlation between acceptance of illegal hunting and PCI showed that areas with high acceptance of illegal hunting are areas with high potential conflict between people. Our results show that spatially-stratified surveys are required to reveal the large scale patterns in social dynamics of human-wildlife conflicts.     

Troublesome neighbours: Changing attitudes towards chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in a human-dominated landscape in Uganda

Long-term human–wildlife sympatry depends on the willingness and capacity of local people to coexist with wild animals. With human population growth and deforestation for agriculture, farmers increasingly live in proximity to wildlife, including large mammals of conservation concern. Understanding local perspectives and concerns regarding wildlife is essential for informing appropriate management strategies that reduce conflicts and promote sustainable coexistence. Social science approaches therefore have a critical role in integrated conservation programmes. We undertook an attitude survey to understand residents’ perspectives about sharing a landscape with chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) in an unprotected forest–agriculture mosaic in Uganda. Interviews (n = 134) in 12 villages demonstrate residents’ ambivalence towards living alongside these protected yet potentially troublesome mammals. Chimpanzee behaviour is reported to have undergone recent changes. Residents claim apes increasingly enter villages for food, threaten people, and pose a particular threat to children's safety. Chimpanzee numbers are believed to have increased locally. Most interviewees fear chimpanzees, considering them dangerous. Crop losses to chimpanzees were widely reported. Farmers tolerate raiding of domestic fruits, but not cash-crops. Results demonstrate that attitudes towards wildlife are not fixed. Reported changes to chimpanzee behaviour are challenging villagers’ traditionally benign attitude towards them. Even so, residents acknowledge benefits to chimpanzees because they reportedly displace other crop-raiding wildlife which, unlike chimpanzees, damage important staple food crops. Survey findings are contextualised with respect to recent, major land-use changes in Uganda (clearance of unprotected forest for timber and agriculture) that have precipitated a sharp rise in farmer–chimpanzee interactions. We discuss the study's broader implications for protected mammal management and conflict mitigation in human-dominated landscapes, and ask whether it is appropriate to expect impoverished rural farmers to accommodate large-bodied mammals that pose a potential threat to their safety and livelihoods.     

Habitat selection by endangered Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) and impacts of livestock grazing in Nepal Himalaya: Implications for conservation

Habitat management within and outside protected areas is a key to effective conservation of wildlife. This is particularly vital for declining wildlife populations within the boundary of conservation areas, while sharing their potential habitat range with foraging livestock. In an effort to understand the habitat selection by Himalayan musk deer (Moschus chrysogaster) and explore any potential impacts of livestock grazing, we conducted the present study in a conservation area of central Nepal Himalaya. We recorded data on musk deer and livestock presence and absence (based on signs of fecal pellet, footprint, and resting site) along the elevational transect with associated topographic features (elevation, slope, aspect, distance to water, and vantage point distance) and vegetation features (tree spp., shrub spp., herb spp., and canopy-cover). Using logistic regression model we found that elevation, aspect, canopy-cover, and tree spp. in the area significantly affect the likelihood of habitat selection by musk deer. In particular, they selected the southern aspect of the area with elevation ≥ 3529 m, canopy-cover ≥ 42%, and with stands of Pinus spp. and Abies spp. Slope and canopy-cover significantly affected the foraging area selection by livestock. They selected the gentler slopes in the northern aspect of the area with altitude < 3529 m and canopy-cover < 42%. Also, presence of one group of herbivore (i.e. musk deer and livestock) was not found to affect the likelihood of habitat selection by the other group. These independent habitat selections are possibly the responses to morphological and behavioral adaptations than to impacts and interactions between these two groups of herbivores. We suggest to avoid any disturbances and livestock grazing on the area that disrupt the resources and conditions likely selected and occupied by musk deer population.     

Dietary composition,breadth, and overlap between seasonally sympatric Himalayan musk deer and livestock: Conservation implications

Livestock in high altitudes of Nepal and elsewhere, frequently and freely, use potential habitat of native wildlife for foraging. Such intrusion of ecologically similar domestic species is supposed to negatively impact the resident wildlife via ‘perceived’ and/or ‘real’ competitive interactions. Hence, assessment of dietary composition and overlap between herbivores is crucial to gain insight into the potential impacts via resource exploitation by foraging livestock. Also, evaluation of dietary composition of resident wildlife across seasons is important to decipher their seasonal resource needs. Within this context, microhistological technique, that makes use of fecal pellet for identification of plant species through comparison with reference slides of plant materials in the area, was used to assess dietary composition, breadth, and overlap between seasonally sympatric Himalayan musk deer and livestock in Nepal Himalaya. Musk deer and livestock were found to have significantly different dietary consumption and that partition was contributed by different species; meaning different plant species were associated to the diets of these two groups. Of notable, however, was a considerable ‘number’ of species (i.e., species richness) shared in diets by musk deer and livestock raising a concern of unchecked number of livestock with a potential to exploit and reduce the availability of shared plant species with musk deer. Also, seasonal dietary composition of musk deer significantly varied, with increased dietary breadth in winter, suggesting a potential for intraspecific competition for forage in winter because of limited availability of resources mediated by retarded growth and harsh conditions.