An approach to remote monitoring of heart rate variability (HRV) using microwave radar during a calculation task

Recently, nonrestrictive and noninvasive sensing techniques to measure vital signs have been actively researched and developed. This study aimed to develop a prototype system to monitor cardiac activity using microwave radar without making contact with the body and without removing clothing--namely, a completely noncontact, remote monitoring system. In addition, heart rate and changes in heart rate variability (HRV) during simple mental arithmetic tasks were observed with the prototype system. The prototype system has a microwave Doppler radar antenna with 24 GHz frequency and approximately 7 mW output power. The experiments were conducted with seven subjects (23.00±0.82 years). We found that the prototype system captured heart rate and HRV precisely. The strong relationship between the heart rates during tasks (r=0.96), LF (cross-correlation=0.76), and LF/HF (cross-correlation=0.73) of HRV calculated from the prototype system and from electrocardiograph (ECG) measurements were confirmed. The proposed completely noncontact, remote method appears promising for future monitoring of cardiac activity as an indicator of changes in mental workload in workplaces.     

Evaluation of stored body fat in nuisance-killed Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus)

We evaluated the stored body fat of Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus japonicus) killed as nuisances in Gifu and Fukushima prefectures, Japan, during 2005-2007. We employed femur marrow fat (FMF), modified kidney fat index (mKFI), and abdominal subcutaneous fat (ASF) as indices for quantitative evaluation. We examined the basic characteristics of these indices, such as seasonality, age and sex dependency, and the quantitative relationship among them. mKFI and ASF increased towards the beginning of the denning period (December), while FMF was relatively stable throughout the sampling period (July-December). In cubs, all indices showed significantly lower values than in the older age classes. There seemed to be a catabolizing order between FMF and mKFI, but not between mKFI and ASF. We also evaluated the yearly change in the indices, and discussed its relevance to the incidence of bear intrusion into human residential areas. Bears nuisance-killed in summer (July-September) 2006 had a significantly larger amount of stored body fat than those killed in summer 2007, although the number of nuisance kills was larger in 2006 than in 2007. This suggests that poor nutritional condition is not a direct cause of bear intrusion.     

Hibernation in warm hibernacula by free-ranging Formosan leaf-nosed bats, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Hipposideros terasensis</Emphasis>, in subtropical Taiwan

The subtropical Formosan leaf-nosed bats, Hipposideros terasensis (Hipposideridae), show little activity during winter. It has never been determined whether in winter they exhibit hibernation and multi-day periods of low body temperature. The objectives of this study were to understand the winter activity pattern of H. terasensis and to examine whether it enters hibernation during winter. We monitored the skin temperature (T _sk) of nine free-ranging H. terasensis by attaching temperature-sensitive transmitters during the winters of 2007–2008 and 2008–2009. The results showed that H. terasensis entered hibernation from late December to early March. H. terasensis, however, differs from temperate hibernating bats in several ways: (1) it is capable of hibernation at roost temperature (T _r) and T _sk > 20°C; (2) hibernation at high T _r and T _sk does not lead to a relatively high arousal frequency; and (3) adults do not increase body mass in autumn prior to hibernation. To test the hypothesis that H. terasensis feeds frequently during the hibernation period to compensate for the high energetic demands of hibernating in warm hibernacula, we recorded the number and timing of bats that emerged from and entered into a hibernaculum, which contained more than 1,000 bats. From 30 December 2007 to 29 February 2008, an average of only 8.4 bats (<1%) per night (29 nights) emerged from the hibernaculum. Adult bats lost an average of 13–14% of body mass during an approximately 70-day hibernation period. We suggest that H. terasensis might have remarkably low torpid metabolic rates during hibernation.     

云岭自然保护区拉沙山区域亚洲黑熊的活动模式

中国西南山地是亚洲黑熊(Ursus thibetanus)的重要分布地,但是对该物种的活动模式研究很少.2017年7月-2019年8月,本研究以云南兰坪云岭省级自然保护区拉沙山区域亚洲黑熊为研究对象,按照250 m×250 m网格布设218台红外相机,累计有效拍摄日为36 175 d,共获得亚洲黑熊的独立照片(Inde...     

Winter hibernation and body temperature fluctuation in the Japanese badger, Meles meles anakuma

This study examined seasonal changes in body weight, hibernation period, and body temperature of the Japanese badger (Meles meles anakuma) from 1997 to 2001. Adult badgers showed seasonal changes in body weight. Between mid-December and February, badger activity almost ceased, as the animals remained in their setts most of the time. Adult male badgers were solitary hibernators; adult females hibernated either alone or with their cubs and/or yearlings. The total hibernation period of Japanese badgers ranged from 42 to 80 days, with a mean length of 60.1 days. Japanese badgers did not always spend the winters in the same sett, although they seldom changed setts during hibernation. I equipped a male cub with an intraperitoneally implanted data logger to record its body temperature between November and April, while the cub hibernated with its mother. Over the winter, the body weight of the cub decreased from 5.3 kg to 3.6 kg, a weight loss of 32.1%, and its body temperature ranged from 32.0 to 39.8 degrees C. The mean monthly body temperature was 35.1 degrees C in December, 34.8 degrees C in January, 35.9 degrees C in February, 37.1 degrees C in March, and 37.4 degrees C in April, so the monthly decrease in body temperature of this cub was not great. The results indicate that during hibernation, when body temperature is low, there is likely considerable economy of energy and a reduced demand for adipose reserves.     

Effect of mast production on home range use of Japanese black bears

Although bears may expand their home ranges in times of low food availability, it is unclear what mechanisms directly affect home range extension in times of low mast production in Japanese forests. To clarify the relationship between home range utilization by Japanese black bears (Ursus thibetanus) and abundance and distribution of mast production, we collected data on habitat use from 13 bears (6 M and 7 F) fitted with Global Positioning System (GPS) collars equipped with activity sensors in the Ashio-Nikko Mountains on the eastern part of Honshu Island, Japan, during 2006–2008. We also collected data on mast production by 5 Fagaceae species. We categorized each fall as either poor (2006) or relatively-good (2007 and 2008) based on mast production. Bears used small patches in their large home ranges and the distances between core areas increased in the fall of 2006, when the mast of Japanese oak (Quercus crispula) were poorly distributed. Our findings suggest that localized patches of Japanese oak are the staple food for bears in our study area, even in poor mast years. However, in the fall of 2006, we also found that bears moved to lower elevations, relative to 2007 and 2008, in search of alternative foods (e.g., Konara oak [Q. serrata] and Japanese chestnut [Castanea crenata]), which were mostly at lower elevations and produced mast consistently over the study period. Our results suggest that dispersion and elevational distribution of mast-producing trees affect bear habitat use in fall, as well as amount of mast. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.     

The tensile strength of black bear (Ursus americanus) cortical bone is not compromised with aging despite annual periods of hibernation

Black bears (Ursus americanus) may not develop disuse osteoporosis during long periods of disuse (i.e. hibernation) because they may be able to maintain bone formation. Previously, we found that cortical bone bending strength was not compromised with age in black bears' tibias, despite annual periods of disuse. Here we showed that cortical bone tensile strength (166-198MPa) also does not decrease with age (2-14 years) in black bear tibias. There were also no significant age-related changes in cortical bone porosity in black bear tibias. It is likely that the ability of black bears to maintain bone formation during hibernation keeps bone porosity low (2.3-8.6%) with aging, notwithstanding annual periods of disuse. This low porosity likely preserves ultimate stress with aging. Female bears give birth and nurse during hibernation; however, we found no significant differences between male and female tensile material properties, mineral content, or porosity. Our findings support the idea that black bears, which hibernate 5-7 months annually, have evolved biological mechanisms to mitigate the adverse effects of disuse on bone porosity and strength.     

Phylogeographic and Demographic Analysis of the Asian Black Bear (Ursus thibetanus) Based on Mitochondrial DNA

The Asian black bear Ursus thibetanus is widely distributed in Asia and is adapted to broad-leaved deciduous forests, playing an important ecological role in the natural environment. Several subspecies of U. thibetanus have been recognized, one of which, the Japanese black bear, is distributed in the Japanese archipelago. Recent molecular phylogeographic studies clarified that this subspecies is genetically distantly related to continental subspecies, suggesting an earlier origin. However, the evolutionary relationship between the Japanese and continental subspecies remained unclear. To understand the evolution of the Asian black bear in relation to geological events such as climatic and transgression-regression cycles, a reliable time estimation is also essential. To address these issues, we determined and analyzed the mt-genome of the Japanese subspecies. This indicates that the Japanese subspecies initially diverged from other Asian black bears in around 1.46Ma. The Northern continental population (northeast China, Russia, Korean peninsula) subsequently evolved, relatively recently, from the Southern continental population (southern China and Southeast Asia). While the Japanese black bear has an early origin, the tMRCAs and the dynamics of population sizes suggest that it dispersed relatively recently in the main Japanese islands: during the late Middle and Late Pleistocene, probably during or soon after the extinction of the brown bear in Honshu in the same period. Our estimation that the population size of the Japanese subspecies increased rapidly during the Late Pleistocene is the first evidential signal of a niche exchange between brown bears and black bears in the Japanese main islands.This interpretation seems plausible but was not corroborated by paleontological evidence that fossil record of the Japanese subspecies limited after the Late Pleistocene. We also report here a new fossil record of the oldest Japanese black bear from the Middle Pleistocene, and it supports our new evolutionary hypothesis of the Japanese black bear.     

Opioids and hibernation. I. Effects of naloxone on bear HIT'S depression of guinea pig ileum contractility and on induction of summer hibernation in the ground squirrel

Summer hibernation in ground squirrels (Citellus tridecemlineatus) can be induced by intravenous injection of hibernation-induction trigger (HIT) from winter bear plasma or its albumin fraction. In this study, we show that bear HIT depresses electrically-induced contraction of the guinea pig ileum myenteric plexus-longitudinal muscle preparation, and that naloxone, at 100, 1,000, or even 4,000 nM, fails to reverse that effect. In a simultaneous study, four sets of ground squirrels were implanted with osmotic minipumps which delivered solutions at a controlled and continuous rate. Two of the groups had pumps delivering naloxone at 1 mg/kg body weight per hour. The other two groups had saline-filled pumps (controls). One set of squirrels from each of the saline- and naloxone-filled pump groups were then injected intravenously with winter bear plasma. The remaining two groups of squirrels were injected with winter bear albumin fraction. Hibernation frequency was determined by measurements of core temperature (from surgically-implanted radio capsules), respiratory rate, and bouts of activity. Squirrels with saline-filled pumps hibernated four times more frequently than the naloxone groups. To confirm these findings, three squirrels from each naloxone group were reinjected with bear HIT after removal of the pumps. These six squirrels then hibernated over four times their previous frequency. Results suggest that bear HIT is not itself an opioid (since naloxone did not reverse bear HIT's depression of electrically-induced contraction of guinea pig ileum). The fact that bear HIT's effect of inducing summer hibernation in ground squirrels is effectively blocked in vivo by naloxone leads to the speculation that HIT may be either a precursor of endogenous opioids or a potent releaser of them, which, in turn, induce hibernation.     

An Overview of the Ichnological and Ethological Studies in the Cave Bear Den in Urşilor Cave (Western Carpathians,Romania)

This paper presents a preliminary investigation of late Pleistocene cave bear traces from Ur?ilor Cave in the western Carpathians, Romania. The bears left thousands of traces on the walls, plateaus, and slopes of the cave interior. Some areas in the cave have been heavily trampled, leaving more than 140 hibernation beds as well as fur impressions. The footprints of cave bears are assigned to Ursichnus europaeus nov. ichnogen. and nov. ichnosp. and the cave bear-beds to Ursalveolus carpathicus nov. ichnogen. and nov. ichnosp. as behavioral traces. Tens of thousands of scratch marks on the slopes and top of a clay plateau are the result of bears moving from the hibernation area down to a stream and back. These traces reveal that the cave bears had short claws, similar to those of modern, primarily herbivorous black bears. Deep within the cave, three weathered, articulated cave bear skeletons still lie in their hibernation beds on the clay plateaus or a natural cave corner. One of these bears was a one-year-old male cub that did not survive its first hibernation; a second skeleton close was an adult female. The third, a young male, was found close to the end of the cave system. The bears of Ur?ilor Cave would have felt well protected against carnivores during their hibernation because their sleeping places were so deep within the cave. Their strategy may well have been to avoid any conflict with hyenas and lions during hibernation.     

Serum Immune-Related Proteins are Differentially Expressed during Hibernation in the American Black Bear

Hibernation is an adaptation to conserve energy in the face of extreme environmental conditions and low food availability that has risen in several animal phyla. This phenomenon is characterized by reduced metabolic rate (∼25% of the active basal metabolic rate in hibernating bears) and energy demand, while other physiological adjustments are far from clear. The profiling of the serum proteome of the American black bear (Ursus americanus) may reveal specific proteins that are differentially modulated by hibernation, and provide insight into the remarkable physiological adaptations that characterize ursid hibernation. In this study, we used differential gel electrophoresis (DIGE) analysis, liquid chromatography coupled to tandem mass spectrometry, and subsequent MASCOT analysis of the mass spectra to identify candidate proteins that are differentially expressed during hibernation in captive black bears. Seventy serum proteins were identified as changing by ±1.5 fold or more, out of which 34 proteins increased expression during hibernation. The majority of identified proteins are involved in immune system processes. These included α₂-macroglobulin, complement components C1s and C4, immunoglobulin μ and J chains, clusterin, haptoglobin, C4b binding protein, kininogen 1, α₂-HS-glycoprotein, and apoplipoproteins A-I and A-IV. Differential expression of a subset of these proteins identified by proteomic analysis was also confirmed by immunodetection. We propose that the observed serum protein changes contribute to the maintenance of the hibernation phenotype and health, including increased capacities for bone maintenance and wound healing during hibernation in bears.     

Nesting behaviour and seasonal body mass changes in a rural Irish population of the Western hedgehog (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Erinaceus europaeus</Emphasis>)

There was previously no information on nesting, seasonal body mass or the hibernation behaviour of the hedgehog in Ireland. Between 2008 and 2009, hedgehogs were caught, weighed weekly and monitored by radio tracking at a rural Irish site. Day nests were recorded in the active period and hibernacula thereafter. Arable land has been reported to be poorly utilised by hedgehogs in the UK and Denmark. In Ireland, day nests and hibernacula were constructed in the hedgerows of arable land indicating that these areas will be exploited if hedgerow is maintained and highlights the importance of maintaining hedgerows in arable areas. Individual females returned to the same day nest significantly more than males. Over the 2 years, individuals were found to occupy a mean of 1.8 (±0.9; SD) hibernacula (maximum of 3) and they rotated between nests up to four times (mean of 2.5?±?1.6). When hedgehogs occupied multiple hibernacula, those occupied in mid winter (December and January) were occupied for significantly longer than those occupied at the start (October and November) and end (February and March) of hibernation. Studies in the UK and Denmark have reported on hedgehog hibernation. However, the winter climate in southern Ireland is milder than other areas of Europe and thus it was expected that hibernation characteristics would also differ, i.e. shorter hibernation periods, earlier emergence, lower body mass loss and the ability to survive hibernation at a lower body mass. This proved to be the case with a mean hibernation period (±SE) of 148.9 (±0.5) days, a mean body mass loss of 17.0 (±0.53) %, emergence in March and the ability of late juveniles to survive at a pre-hibernation body mass of 475 g.     

Seasonal variation in fleshy fruit use and seed dispersal by the Japanese black bear (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Ursus thibetanus japonicus</Emphasis>)

Fruit use by the Japanese black bear (Ursus thibetanus japonicus) and seed clumping in bear scat were studied in central Japan using fecal analyses. Between May and November 2003 and 2004, the life form and fruit size of plants consumed by bears and the species composition and intactness of seeds contained in scat were examined in five transects (approximately 10 km × 10 m) in broad-leaved deciduous forests. In 2003, scats with seeds were found only in the autumn, when fruiting trees and shrubs were abundant. In 2004, scats with seeds occurred intermittently from the summer, when fruiting plants were rare, up to the autumn. Yearly and seasonal variation in fruit use reflects the opportunistic foraging behavior of Japanese black bears. Seven of the nine plant species detected in scats had medium-sized fruits (6–15 mm width), whereas the other two species had relatively large fruits (20–100 mm width). In total, 14,492 seeds were detected, of which 97.6% were intact; the remainder were damaged. Intact seeds of one or two species were found in each scat. The number of intact seeds per scat ranged from 1 to 5476. Japanese black bears seldom digest ingested seeds, thereby contributing to the seed dispersal of their food plants, including species with fruits that are too large to be swallowed by frugivorous birds.     

Black bear movements and habitat use during a critical period for moose calves

In sub-Arctic and north-temperate ecosystems, opportunistic carnivores, such as black bears (Ursus americanus) and brown bears (Ursus arctos), are active on the landscape for a shorter period annually than sympatric gray wolves (Canis lupus). Therefore, bear movement patterns and habitat use might be expected to be more deliberate and of greater consequence, in terms of energy acquisition, than those of predators not undergoing hibernation. Habitat choices concerning feeding, bedding, and denning grounds made by black bears therefore should reflect seasonal abundance and distribution of vegetation and key prey items as these are sites where bears remain and forage for prolonged periods of time. We recorded the movement patterns of 6 GPS-collared black bears from den emergence to onset of moose (Alces alces) parturition in 2003. Over approximately 3 weeks prior to parturition, results from average distance calculations suggest that black bears moved closer to probable moose calving-site habitat. Additionally, the seasonal habitat use by black bears surrounding dens reflected the same trend for areas where cow moose gave birth in spring 2003, with a propensity to use needleleaf forest more than any other habitat.     

Estimating grizzly and black bear population abundance and trend in Banff National Park using noninvasive genetic sampling

We evaluated the potential of two noninvasive genetic sampling methods, hair traps and bear rub surveys, to estimate population abundance and trend of grizzly (Ursus arctos) and black bear (U. americanus) populations in Banff National Park, Alberta, Canada. Using Huggins closed population mark-recapture models, we obtained the first precise abundance estimates for grizzly bears (N=?73.5, 95% CI?=?64-94 in 2006; N=?50.4, 95% CI?=?49-59 in 2008) and black bears (N=?62.6, 95% CI?=?51-89 in 2006; N=?81.8, 95% CI?=?72-102 in 2008) in the Bow Valley. Hair traps had high detection rates for female grizzlies, and male and female black bears, but extremely low detection rates for male grizzlies. Conversely, bear rubs had high detection rates for male and female grizzlies, but low rates for black bears. We estimated realized population growth rates, lambda, for grizzly bear males (λ=?0.93, 95% CI?=?0.74-1.17) and females (λ=?0.90, 95% CI?=?0.67-1.20) using Pradel open population models with three years of bear rub data. Lambda estimates are supported by abundance estimates from combined hair trap/bear rub closed population models and are consistent with a system that is likely driven by high levels of human-caused mortality. Our results suggest that bear rub surveys would provide an efficient and powerful means to inventory and monitor grizzly bear populations in the Central Canadian Rocky Mountains.     

Split parturition observed in a captive North American brown bear (Ursus arctos)

Reproductive physiology in North American ursids is characterized by mating from spring to early summer, delayed implantation, and birth during hibernation. During spring 2008, a captive adult female brown bear was mated with two adult males. Pregnancy was determined by elevated progesterone concentrations during late fall before hibernation. Two male cubs were born on December 31, 2008, and a third female cub was born 17 days later on January 16. All were successfully raised and all were confirmed to have identical paternity. When normalized to age, cub growth rates did not differ. To our knowledge, this is the first documented case of markedly different birth dates in a single litter of brown bear cubs.     

The expense for one implantation of a banked bone allograft from a cadaveric donor and the issues affecting current advanced medical treatment in the Japanese orthopaedic field

Demand for banked bone allografts is increasing in Japan; however, there are too few bone banks and the bone bank network is not well-established. One reason for this was lack of funding for banks. Bone banks had to bear all material expenses of banked bone allografts themselves because this was not designated a covered expense. In December 2004, the Japanese government started a new “Advanced Medical Treatment” administration system which allowed an approved institution to charge the expense of authorized advanced medical treatments directly to patients. The treatment named “Cryopreserved allogenic bone and ligamentous tissue retrieved from cadaveric donor” was approved as an advanced medical treatment in March 2007. We present the calculation method and the expense per implantation of a banked bone allograft from a cadaveric donor under this treatment and raise issues which affect this advanced medical treatment and remain to be resolved in the Japanese orthopaedic field.     

Changes during hibernation in different phospholipid and free and esterified cholesterol serum levels in black bears

During hibernation, fat is known to be the preferred source of energy. A detailed analysis of different phospholipids, as well as free and esterified cholesterol, was conducted to investigate lipid abnormalities during hibernation. The levels of total phospholipids and total cholesterol in the serum of black bears were found to increase significantly in hibernation as compared with the active state. Both free and esterified cholesterol were increased in the hibernating state in comparison with the active state (P < 0.05). The percentage increase during hibernation was more in free cholesterol (57%) than in esterified cholesterol (27%). Analysis of subclasses of serum phospholipids showed that choline containing phospholipids, i.e., sphingomyelin (SPG) (14%) and phosphatidylcholine (PC) (76%), are the major phospholipids in the serum of bear. The minor phospholipids included 8% of phosphatidylserine (PS) + phosphatidylinositol (PI), while phosphatidylethanolamine (PE) was only 2% of the total phospholipids. A comparison of phospholipid subclasses showed that PC, PS + PI and SPG were significantly increased, while PE was significantly decreased (P < 0.05) in the hibernating state as compared with the active state in black bears. These results suggest that the catabolism of phospholipids and cholesterol is decreased during hibernation in black bears, leading to their increased levels in the hibernating state as compared with the active state. In summary, our results indicate that serum cholesterol and phospholipid fractions (except PE) are increased during hibernation in bears. It is proposed that the increase of these lipids may be due to the altered metabolism of lipoproteins that are responsible for the clearance of the lipids.     

Monitoring the wild black bear's reaction to human and environmental stressors

Background

Bears are among the most physiologically remarkable mammals. They spend half their life in an active state and the other half in a state of dormancy without food or water, and without urinating, defecating, or physical activity, yet can rouse and defend themselves when disturbed. Although important data have been obtained in both captive and wild bears, long-term physiological monitoring of bears has not been possible until the recent advancement of implantable devices.

Results

Insertable cardiac monitors that were developed for use in human heart patients (Reveal® XT, Medtronic, Inc) were implanted in 15 hibernating bears. Data were recovered from 8, including 2 that were legally shot by hunters. Devices recorded low heart rates (pauses of over 14 seconds) and low respiration rates (1.5 breaths/min) during hibernation, dramatic respiratory sinus arrhythmias in the fall and winter months, and elevated heart rates in summer (up to 214 beats/min (bpm)) and during interactions with hunters (exceeding 250 bpm). The devices documented the first and last day of denning, a period of quiescence in two parturient females after birthing, and extraordinary variation in the amount of activity/day, ranging from 0 (winter) to 1084 minutes (summer). Data showed a transition toward greater nocturnal activity in the fall, preceding hibernation. The data-loggers also provided evidence of the physiological and behavioral responses of bears to our den visits to retrieve the data.

Conclusions

Annual variations in heart rate and activity have been documented for the first time in wild black bears. This technique has broad applications to wildlife management and physiological research, enabling the impact of environmental stressors from humans, changing seasons, climate change, social interactions and predation to be directly monitored over multiple years.     

Fatal attacks by American black bear on people: 1900–2009

At least 63 people were killed in 59 incidents by non-captive black bear (Ursus americanus) during 1900–2009. Fatal black bear attacks occurred in Canada and Alaska (n = 49) and in the lower 48 states (n = 14). There were 3.5 times as many fatal attacks in Canada and Alaska but only 1.75 times as many black bears, and much less human contact for black bears in Canada and Alaska. There was a weak positive correlation (r_s = 0.56, P ≤ 0.000) between the estimated size of a bear population within a given jurisdiction and the number of fatal black bear attacks. Some jurisdictions had no fatal black bear attacks but had large estimated black bear populations. Of fatal attacks, 86% (54 of 63, 1.08/yr) occurred between 1960 and 2009. There was positive linear relationship between the number of fatal black bear attacks per decade and human population size in the United States and Canada per decade (r² = 0.92, β = 0.000, P ≤ 0.001). Of fatal attacks, 91% (49 of 54) occurred on parties of 1 or 2 persons. In 38% (15 of 40) of incidents, peoples' food or garbage probably influenced the bear being in the attack location. We judged that the bear involved acted as a predator in 88% (49 of 56) of fatal incidents. Adult (n = 23) or subadult (n = 10) male bears were involved in 92% (33 of 36) of fatal predatory incidents, reflecting biological and behavioral differences between male and female bears. That most fatal black bear attacks were predatory and were carried out by 1 bear shows that females with young are not the most dangerous black bears. As a result of our research agencies managing black bear can more accurately understand the risk of being killed by a black bear, and can communicate this to the public. With training, people can learn to recognize the behaviors of a bear considering them as prey and can act to deter predation. © 2011 The Wildlife Society.