Can the red palm mite threaten the Amazon vegetation?

The red palm mite Raoiella indica Hirst (Tenuipalpidae) was first reported in the New World in 2004, dispersing quickly and widely while adopting new plant species as hosts. Since then, it has caused severe damage in this region, especially to coconut (Cocos nucifera L.). It was first found in Brazil in 2009, in the northern Amazonian state of Roraima. In the present study, native and introduced plants were sampled between March 2010 and February 2011 in sites of the 15 Roraima municipalities, to estimate its distribution and the associated mite fauna. In addition, monthly samples were taken from a coconut plantation in Mucajaí throughout the same period, for an initial appraisal of the levels R. indica could reach. It was found in 10 municipalities, on 19 plant species of four families. Six species are reported for the first time as hosts. Among the associated predators, 89.1% were Phytoseiidae, most commonly Amblyseius largoensis (Muma), Iphiseiodes zuluagai Denmark & Muma and Euseius concordis (Chant). The highest densities of R. indica, 1.5 and 0.35 mites/cm² of leaflet (approx total of 331 and 77 mites/leaflet), were reached respectively in March 2010 and February 2011. The highest density of phytoseiids on coconut (0.009 mites/cm² or about 2 mites/leaflet) was reached in November 2010. The average densities of R. indica recorded for Roraima were comparable to those reported for countries in which the mite is reportedly economically damaging. The dispersal of R. indica through the Amazon forest may result in damage to cultivated and native palms, and plants of other families, if the projected increase in both the frequency and the severity of drought events occurs. Parts of the Amazon have undergone periods of low rainfall, a condition that appears to favour the biology of this mite. Its eventual arrival to northeastern Brazil may result in heavy economic and ecological losses.     

Phytoseiid mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae) on apple trees and in surrounding vegetation in southern Finland. Densities and species composition

Leaf samples were collected from sprayed (n=29) and unsprayed (n=19) apple orchards, from the surrounding vegetation (n=58) and from one arboretum (n=12), altogether from 46 plant species (1–5 samples each). The density of phytoseiid mites averaged 1.2 mites/leaf on unsprayed apple trees, but only 0.06 mites/leaf on sprayed trees. The phytoseiid density exceeded 1/leaf onAesculus hippocastani, Aristolochia macrophylla, Corylus avellana, Fragaria vesca, Frxinus excelsior, Juglans cinerea, Pterocarya rhoifolia, Ribes nigrum, Rubus odoratus, Sorbus aucuparia, S. thuringiaca, Tilia×euchlora andUlmus glabra. Other common trees and bushes inhabited by phytoseiids wereCrataegus coccinea (0.2 mites/leaf),Prunus padus (0.7),Salix caprea (0.4), andTilia cordata (0.9).Twelve species of phytoseiid mites were found, of which ten occurred on unsprayed apple trees. The most widely distributed species on apple trees werePhytoseius macropilis (in 79% of unsprayed samples),Euseius finlandicus (74%),Paraseiulus soleiger (53%),Paraseiulus triporus (37%),Amblyseius canadensis (26%) andAnthoseius rhenanus (26%). The highest densities on apple trees were found in populations ofE. finlandicus (mean 0.7 mites/leaf),Ph. macropilis (0.5) andA. canadensis (0.5). On sprayed apple trees,E. finlandicus, Pa. soleiger andPh. macropilis occurred most commonly, but their mean densities were under 0.1/leaf. Almost no phytoseiids were found in orchards sprayed with oxydemetonmethyl before blooming of apple.On other plants,E. finlandicus occurred most commonly (on 33 plant species) and in the highest densities, followed byPh. macropilis (14),Pa. soleiger (12),Pa. triporus (12) andAn. rhenanus (7).Seiulus aceri andParaseiulus talbii were identified as new phytoseiid species in Finland. It is concluded that deciduous trees and bushes in forest margins around orchards can serve as important reservoirs for phytoseiid mites, and that the dominant species in these plants would migrate into and colonize the orchards if the use of harmful chemicals were restricted.     

Assessment of Amblyseius fallacis (Acari: Phytoseiidae) for biological control of tetranychid mites in an Ontario peach orchard

We introduced a mass-reared pyrethroid-resistant strain of the predatory phytoseiid mite Amblyseius fallacis (Garman) into an Ontario peach orchard in an attempt to control populations of the phytophagous mites Panonychus ulmi Koch and Tetranychus urticae Koch (Acari: Tetranychidae). Releases of 1,000 and 2,000 mites per tree were made, at three different times. The release of 2,000 mites per tree in June and in July resulted in significantly higher phytoseiid densities than was observed on control trees. However, densities of P. ulmi or T. urticae were not significantly affected by any release rate or by timing. The release of 1,000 A. fallacis per tree, or of any density in August, did not significantly increase phytoseiid abundance. In the following year, population dynamics of both phytoseiid and phytophagous mites were not significantly affected by the previous year's release. Amblyseius fallacis can be a useful predator in some fruit orchards. However, further research is necessary into the timing and rate of release, modified spray programmes, and with different crops, in order to clarify the role of this species for biological control in Ontario peach orchards.     

Effect of Air Humidity on the Egg Viability of Predatory Mites (Acari: Phytoseiidae, Stigmaeidae) Common on Rubber Trees in Brazil

Rubber pest mites, Calacarus heveae and Tenuipalpus heveae, reach economic damage levels at the end of the rainy season and the beginning of the dry season in Brazil. Therefore, low humidity adaptation might be an important characteristic for predatory mites to successfully control pest organisms. This study determined the effect of the relative humidity (RH) levels of 30–100% on the hatching of larvae of Amblyseius acalyphus, Euseius citrifolius, Iphiseiodes zuluagai, Metaseiulus camelliae, Agistemus floridanus and Zetzellia malvinae at 25 ± 0.5 °C. These predatory mites are common on rubber trees in the state of São Paulo and might be used for introduction in the major rubber tree production regions in the state of Mato Grosso. At 70% RH or higher, viability was 70% or higher for all species, indicating that their performance might be higher during the rainy season than during the dry season. Eggs of E. citrifolius and M. camelliae presented higher viability at the lower relative humidity levels than those of other species, indicating that these species might have higher chance to persist in the dry season. It is suggested that M. camelliae should be further evaluated for introduction in the state of Mato Grosso, considering that this mite is not yet present in that area.     

Alternative plant habitats for common phytoseiid predators of the cassava green mite (Acari: Phytoseiidae,Tetranychidae) in northeast Brazil

A survey was conducted to identify possible alternative plant habitats of the most common phytoseiid predators associated with the cassava green mite, Mononychellus tanajoa (Bondar), in their native environment in northeast Brazil. Thirty-two phytoseiid species were collected, including Amblyseius aripo (DeLeon), Amblyseius idaeus (Denmark and Muma) and Amblyseius limonicus Garman and McGregor s.l., the three predators previously shown as the most common on cassava. In increasing order, A. idaeus, Phytoseius guianensis DeLeon and A. aripo were the most common phytoseiids collected on the plant habitats examined. A. limonicus s.l. was one of the least common phytoseiids on plants other than cassava. Altermative plant habitats seem important in harboring A. aripo and A. idaeus, but not A. limonicus s.l..     

A new family of Gonyleptoidea from South America (Opiliones,Laniatores)

A new family of Laniatores, Gerdesiidae fam. nov., is proposed based on molecular and morphological evidence. Data also indicate that this new family is the sister family of Tricommatidae. Gerdesiidae fam. nov. has a disjunct distribution, occurring in northern South America (Peru, Brazilian Amazon) and at a spot in south‐eastern Brazil (Minas Gerais State). The new family is composed of two genera: Gerdesius Roewer, 1952 (type genus) and G onycranaus gen. nov. (type species G onycranaus androgynus sp. nov. ). We propose the synonymy of Huralvioides H. Soares, 1970 with Gerdesius Roewer, 1952 based on molecular and morphological evidence. Three new species are described: G erdesius mapinguari sp. nov. (type locality: Brazil, Amazonas, Manaus, Reserva Km 41); G onycranaus androgynus sp. nov. (type locality: Brazil, Minas Gerais, Conceição do Mato Dentro); and an obligate cave‐dwelling species, G onycranaus pluto sp. nov. (type locality: Brazil, Minas Gerais, Morro do Pilar). © 2015 The Linnean Society of London     

Overwintering Mite Diversity and Their Habitats in Apple and Pear Orchards of Korea with Emphasis on Phytoseiidae and Tetranychidae

Overwintering mite diversity and their habitats were studied in apple and pear orchards during 2002-2003 winter season. Twospotted spider mite was mostly found under the tree barks and fabric strips. European red mites were from crevices of twigs. Tydeid, tarsonemid and oribatid mites were mostly from soil and ground vegetation. Even in the protected overwintering habitat such as artificial fabric strip, twospotted spider mite suffered 81-91% mortality during winter. Predaceous phytoseiid mites found were Amblyseius womersleyi, A. makuwa, A. orientalis, A. rademacheri A. obtuserellus, and A. eharai. Amblyseius womersleyi was the most dominant species in both apple and pear orchards, followed by A. obtuserrellus in apple orchards and A. makuwa in pear orchards. Most phytoseiid mites were found on ground vegetation while their potential prey items were remained on the tree. Implication of the findings for conservation of beneficial mites and biological control of spider mite during season was further discussed.     

Frog call transmission in forestry monocultures: Are there drawbacks?

Anuran males emit advertisement calls for the purpose of attracting females and repelling conspecific males. Call transmission is influenced by the acoustics of the propagation environment, including vegetation. Thus, forestry monocultures of non-native trees represent artificial environments that could modify call transmission. These monocultures have substituted large areas of Atlantic Forest in southern Brazil, representing a conservation challenge. Considering this context, we hypothesized that anurans have calls that are less attenuated in their native environment than in forest plantations. To test it, we performed sound transmission experiments using calls of three anuran species native to southern Brazil: Boana bischoffi, B. leptolineata, and Hylodes meridionalis. We compared sound attenuation between the native forest and forestry monocultures (Eucalyptus sp. and Pinus sp. forests), and included distance from the sound source, air temperature, humidity, and vegetation density as cofactors in linear mixed models. Our results show that the advertisement calls of the two tree frogs (Boana) attenuate less in tree plantations than in native forests, while the third species shows either no differences or less attenuation in native forests. Our results can be understood according to differences in natural history and microhabitat use among the studied species. The two tree frog species vocalize perched from vegetation so their calls become better transmitted in forestry monocultures, which have fewer trees than the native forest. On the other hand, H. meridionalis calls from rocks on streams and the propagation is finely tuned to this peculiar microhabitat. We discuss the conservation implications of our findings for anurans and for the Atlantic Forest. Abstract in Portuguese and Spanish are available with online material.     

Diversity of phytoseiid mites (Acari: Mesostigmata: Phytoseiidae) in the Atlantic Forest of São Paulo

The objective of this study was to evaluate the diversity of Phytoseiidae in the Atlantic Forest of São Paulo State, Brazil, and to estimate the possible role of this ecosystem as a reservoir for mites of this family. Samples were taken from 187 plant species belonging to 73 plant families in three vegetation types of the Atlantic Forest, from February 2001 to October 2002. In total, 1102 specimens of 54 species belonging to 20 genera of the three phytoseiid subfamilies were found. Most specimens (93%) and species (91%) belonged to the Amblyseiinae. The majority of species found belong to taxonomic groups largely composed of generalist predators (especially Amblyseius and Euseius). In general, the more abundant mites were found on a diversity of plant species, but a few of the abundant species were found on only a small number of plant species. Only nine of the mites encountered during this study are of known agricultural importance. The results obtained suggest the importance of the wide plant diversity in the region to sustain a wide diversity of phytoseiids. The extensive clearance of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest is a threat to the diversity of these mites, important predators of mite pests.     

Initial Screening of Little Known Predatory Mites in Brazil as Potential Pest Control Agents

The objective of this study was to evaluate the oviposition rate and the survivorship of some of the most common predators on plants of the natural vegetation of southeastern Brazil, when confined with different food sources. Forty-four laboratory tests were carried out, each corresponding to a different combination of predator species and food source. The predators tested were: Phytoseiidae—Amblyseius acalyphus, Euseius citrifolius, Iphiseiodes zuluagai, Metaseiulus (Metaseiulus) camelliae, Typhlodromips cananeiensis; Stigmaeidae—Agistemus floridanus, Zetzellia malvinae; Tydeidae—Pronematus sp. For most predators, the highest oviposition rate and survivorship were obtained when the prey was one of the tenuipalpid mites, Brevipalpus phoenicis or Tenuipalpus heveae. With the exception of A. floridanus, the predators had low oviposition rate and survivorship on Calacarus heveae relative to their respective rate on other food sources. Predators had also generally low oviposition rate and survivorship when feeding on Tetranychus urticae, Oligonychus gossypii or Frankliniella sp.     

Species diversity and seasonal dynamics of Acari on abandoned apple trees in southern Ontario,Canada

Foliage-inhabiting mites and associated insects were observed over a 3-year period on abandoned apple trees at two sites in southern Ontario. This study included species diversity and seasonal dynamics as well as the total habitat size and its seasonal fluctuations. Due to heavy feeding on the leaves in the early season by the fall cankerworm, at one observation site, the habitat available for foliage-inhabiting mites was regulated so that both the total number and the area of leaves on the tree did not increase significantly until early July. However, the influence of this on the population of the dominant mite species was minimal. The mite community was relatively stable over time. Four phytophagous species, representing a basic trophic level, were fed upon by a group of predacious mites. The phytophagous mites consisted of two rust-mite species (Diptacus gigantorhynchus sp. complex andEriophyes pyri sp. complex) and two tetranychid species (Bryobia rubrioculus andEotetranychus uncatus). On the basis of consistency in seasonal abundance,D. gigantorhynchus was the only prey species which could support the early-season population increase of the predacious mites. Ten species of predacious mites were recorded on the apple trees, nine phytoseiids and one stigmaeid; two separate species of these were common at each of two observation sites:Typhlodromus pomi and the stigmaeidZetzellia mali at one site; and two phytoseiid species,Phytoseius macropilis andAmblyseius finlandicus, at the other. There seemed to be a rather simple and stable prey/predator system at each site throughout the three seasons. Species dominance on these apple trees was investigated for the phytoseiids, especially from the perspective of the issue of one-species dominance.     

DNA sequences corroborate Soesiladeepakius as a non‐salticoid genus of jumping spiders: placement with lapsiines,phylogeny, and description of six new species (Araneae,Salticidae)

Species of the Amazonian jumping spider genus Soesiladeepakius Makhan are confirmed as non‐salticoids. Sequences of nuclear (28S, Actin) and mitochondrial (16S through NADH dehydrogenase subunit I, ‘16S‐ND1’) gene regions, analysed under parsimony and maximum likelihood, placed the genus within the lapsiines, closely related to Galianora Maddison. Additionally, six new species of this genus are herein described, namely Soesiladeepakius lyra sp. nov. , Soesiladeepakius retroversus sp. nov. , Soesiladeepakius arthrostylus sp. nov. , Soesiladeepakius gasnieri sp. nov. , Soesiladeepakius biarmatus sp. nov. , and Soesiladeepakius uncinatus sp. nov. , all from the Amazon region in Brazil. To test the monophyly of Soesiladeepakius within lapsiines, a cladistic analysis was carried out using a data matrix comprising 24 morphological characters scored for 12 taxa. The analysis resulted in two equally parsimonious trees of 29 steps. One of these trees is used to discuss the relationships among the species of Soesiladeepakius and character evolution. © 2012 The Linnean Society of London, Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2012, 165 , 274–295.     

Mites (Acari) from rubber trees (Hevea brasiliensis Muell. Arg., Euphorbiaceae) and spontaneous euphorbiaceous in rubber trees cultivation

Quarterly samples were done in 2001 on three rubber tree plantation in the northwest of the state of S?o Paulo. Three rubber trees of each locality were sampled. Between the rows of rubber tree four species of spontaneous euphorbiaceous were collected: Chamaesyce hirta, C. hyssopifolia, Euphorbia heterophylla and Phyllanthus tenellus. A total of 8.954 mites of 38 species, belonging to 31 genera of 11 families were collected. Tydeidae and Phytoseiidae had the highest diversity of species, 9 and 7, respectively. The most abundant families were Eriophyidae (3.594), Tydeidae (2.825) and Tenuipalpidae (1.027). The most abundant species on the rubber trees were: phytophagous - Calacarus heveae Feres, Tenuipalpus heveae Baker, Lorryia sp.2, Lorryia formosa Cooreman and Lorryia sp.1; predators - Zetzellia quasagistemas Hernandes & Feres, Pronematus sp., Iphiseiodes zuluagai Denmark & Muma and Euseius citrifolius Denmark & Muma. Among the spontaneous euphorbiaceous, predatory mites were abundantly found on C. hirta and E. heterophylla, mainly Pronematus sp. and E. citrifolius, suggesting that these plants could be important in the maintenance of these predators in the rubber tree cultivation areas. However, plants that can shelter predators and at the same time exert strong competition (nutrients, water etc) to rubber trees, can not be recommended for pest management programs. Studies about competition between rubber trees and spontaneous plants need to be conducted for feasible efficient programs of environmental management, aiming at the control of pest mites of rubber tree.     

Artificial ground shelters for overwintering phytoseiid mites in orchards

Biological control in orchards strongly depends on winter survival of natural enemies, especially in temperate regions. Predacious phytoseiid mites overwinter on trees or on the ground depending on the characteristics of the species. However, the overwintering ecology of phytoseiid mites on the ground is less well known than that of those on trees. We investigated the usefulness of artificial overwintering shelters as a tool for studying the overwintering ecology of phytoseiid mites on the ground. Four kinds of artificial shelter (shading net, felt, cardboard, and urethane foam) were placed on the ground in an apple orchard in Korea. Two dominant phytoseiid species, Neoseiulus makuwa (Ehara) and N. womersleyi (Schicha) (Acari: Phytoseiidae), overwintered in the artificial ground shelters, and numbers were highest in the urethane foam among the four kinds of shelter, and next highest in the shading net. On the other hand, the numbers of phytoseiid mites collected in the ground vegetation plus soil samples under the ground shelters were not significantly different among the five shelter treatments, including the no-shelter control. Our results suggest that artificial overwintering shelters are efficient tools for investigating overwintering ecology of phytoseiid mites on the ground, as well as on trees, in orchards. Furthermore, the artificial shelters would be good sampling units because they are easily formed into identical sizes and can be used almost anywhere in the field with less laborious work. We also discuss some implications about the effects of sheltered structures on the ground on the populations of phytoseiid mites during winter.     

Diversity of acaropathogenic fungi in Poland and other European countries

The occurrence, species diversity and some aspects of taxonomical affinity and host selectivity of acaropathogenic fungi associated with phytophagous, saprotrophic and predacious mites in Poland and other European countries were investigated on wild and cultivated plants, in insect feeding sites under the bark and in decayed wood. From among 33 species of fungi affecting mites only five species of Entomophthorales were separated and the most numerous were Neozygites floridana mostly on Tetranychus urticae, N. abacaridis on a few eriophyid species, and Conidiobolus coronatus attacking gamasid mites most frequently of the genus Dendrolaelaps. The most frequent mite pathogens occurring in mite communities on plants and in wood infested by insects were of the genus Hirsutella. Until now 13 of their form-species have been recognized in these habitats, but only H. kirchneri, H. necatrix and H. thompsonii (including its variety synnematosa) can be treated as exclusive oligophagous pathogens of phytophagous mites, though their potential host range seems to embrace only selected eriophyid or tarsonemid mites. Taxonomical differentiation of fungal strains was based on close morphological observations and molecular analysis of ITS region sequences. Two new species of acaropathogenic fungi were described in these studies. Hirsutella danubiensis sp. nov. was found in the tetranychid T. urticae, whereas H. vandergeesti sp. nov. affected phytoseiid mites of the genera Amblyseius, Neoseiulus, Seiulus and Typhlodromus, and the tarsonemid Tarsonemus lacustris.     

Three new species of phytoseiid mites from Kenya (Mesostigmata: Phytoseiidae)

The following 13 species of predacious mites of the family Phytoseiidae are recorded from various plants in Kenya: Amblyseius albizziae sp. nov., A. kenyae sp. nov., A. natalensis Van der Merwe, A. lokele Pritchard & Baker, A. largoensis (Muma), A. rykei Pritchard & Baker, A. teke Pritchard & Baker, Typholdromus kikuyuensis sp. nov., T. magdalenae Pritchard & Baker, Phytoseius amba Pritchard & Baker, p. ferox Pritchard & Baker, Iphiseius degenerans (Berlese), I. gongylus Pritchard & Baker. The new species and the male of A. natalensis are described.     

Two new myrmecophilous species of the genus Scutacarus (Acari: Prostigmata: Scutacaridae) with world keys to related species groups

In a survey on heterostigmatic mites (Acari: Prostigmata: Heterostigmata) associated with insects including ants in northwestern Iran, two new species of myrmecophilous mites of the genus Scutacarus (Acari: Scutacaridae) were found. They are S. shajariani sp. nov. phoretic on Tetramorium sp. (Hymenoptera: Formicidae) and S. ebermanni sp. nov. phoretic on Messor sp. The mentioned new species belong to groups of species with reduced setae e and h₂, and no setae 4b, respectively. These two new species are described and illustrated, and world keys are provided for respective species groups.     

Laboratory studies on the feeding habits,reproduction and development of three phytoseiid species,Typhlodromus pomi,Phytoseius macropilis andAmblyseius finlandicus (Acari: Phytoseiidae), occurring on abandoned apple trees in Ontario,Canada

Laboratory studies on predation, reproduction and development were conducted on three phytoseiid species,Typhlodromus pomi (Parrott),Phytoseius macropilis (Banks) andAmblyseius finlandicus (Oudemans). These species were dominant phytoseiid mites on the abandoned apple trees with which ecological experiments were carried out in southern Ontario, Canada. Throught the studies, a rust mite species (Diptacus gigantorhynchus sp. complex), a single consistent prey in the orchard, was used as food. Results showed that the three predators developed well with the rust mites as food, and thatA. finlandicus developed most rapidly and had the highest predation rate. However, this species showed a poor tolerance to low prey densities. These observations suggest that this species is a predacious species and the other two species were more or less general feeders. All species showed the same pre-mating behaviour (Amblyseius-Typhlodromus type), but they exhibited a variety of mating and oviposition behaviours.     

South American electric knifefishes of the genus Archolaemus (Ostariophysi,Gymnotiformes): undetected diversity in a clade of rheophiles

Neotropical electric knifefishes of the family Sternopygidae previously considered to represent a single relatively geographically widespread and morphologically variable species, Archolaemus blax, were analysed and found to represent a complex of five species, four of which are new to science. A fifth undescribed species from the Rio São Francisco basin outside the previous known range of the genus was identified. Recognized species of Archolaemus are: A. blax, previously thought to occur in the Rio Araguari, Rio Branco, Rio Tapajós, Rio Tocantins, and Rio Xingu, but which instead proved to be endemic to the Rio Tocantins; Archolaemus ferreirai sp. nov. from the Rio Mucajaí and Rio Uraricoera in the north‐eastern portions of the Amazon basin; Archolaemus janeae sp. nov. of the Rio Xingu and the upper Rio Tapajós, both southern tributaries of the mainstream Amazon; Archolaemus luciae sp. nov. of the Rio Trombetas, Rio Jari, and Rio Tapajós basins of the eastern Amazon, and the independent Rio Araguari draining into the Atlantic Ocean north of the mouth of the Amazon; Archolaemus orientalis sp. nov. of the São Francisco basin in eastern Brazil; and Archolaemus santosi sp. nov. of the Rio Jamari in the south‐western portion of the Amazon basin. The phylogenetic placements of Archolaemus and the recently described genus Japigny relative to the other members of the Eigenmanninae are discussed. A series of synapomorphies for Archolaemus are proposed and a hypothesis of the relationships within that genus is advanced. Rheophily of all members of Archolaemus is discussed, with the genus found to be the most specious clade within the Gymnotiformes living primarily in high‐energy settings. The reported anterior projection of the dentary teeth in A. blax was found to be a consequence of postmortem displacement.     

Intraguild predation among the predatory mites Amblyseius eharai,Amblyseius cucumeris and Amblyseius barkeri

Predator species with the same prey interact not only by competition for food and space but also by intraguild predation (IGP). The impact of IGP on introduced phytoseiid mites and native species in the context of biological control is a matter of considerable debate. Amblyseius eharai is the dominant native citrus species in central China, while Amblyseius cucumeris and Amblyseius barkeri are candidates for importation. All three species can feed on the spider mite Panonychus citri, which is the main pest in citrus. This study investigated, in the laboratory, possible IGP among these species in the absence and presence of P. citri, respectively. IGP in different densities of shared prey and intraguild (IG) prey was also studied. All three species consumed heterospecific larvae and eggs but not adults, and the IGP rate of larvae was significantly higher than that of eggs in the absence of shared prey. Additionally, the IGP rate of each group was reduced dramatically in the presence of both shared and IG prey when compared to the absence of shared prey. This occurs most likely because the three species prefer to feed on their natural prey P. citri, rather than on IG prey. Our results showed that A. eharai seems to be a more voracious IG predator than A. cucumeris. A. eharai was much more prone to IGP than A. barkeri.