Ecosystem response to removal of exotic riparian shrubs and a transition to upland vegetation

Understanding plant community change over time is essential for managing important ecosystems such as riparian areas. This study analyzed historic vegetation using soil seed banks and the effects of riparian shrub removal treatments and channel incision on ecosystem and plant community dynamics in Canyon de Chelly National Monument, Arizona. We focused on how seeds, nutrients, and ground water influence the floristic composition of post-treatment vegetation and addressed three questions: (1) How does pre-treatment soil seed bank composition reflect post-treatment vegetation composition? (2) How does shrub removal affect post-treatment riparian vegetation composition, seed rain inputs, and ground water dynamics? and (3) Is available soil nitrogen increased near dead Russian olive plants following removal and does this influence post-treatment vegetation? We analyzed seed bank composition across the study area, analyzed differences in vegetation, ground water levels, and seed rain between control, cut-stump and whole-plant removal areas, and compared soil nitrogen and vegetation near removed Russian olive to areas lacking Russian olive. The soil seed bank contained more riparian plants, more native and fewer exotic plants than the extant vegetation. Both shrub removal methods decreased exotic plant cover, decreased tamarisk and Russian olive seed inputs, and increased native plant cover after 2 years. Neither method increased ground water levels. Soil near dead Russian olive trees indicated a short-term increase in soil nitrogen following plant removal but did not influence vegetation composition compared to areas without Russian olive. Following tamarisk and Russian olive removal, our study sites were colonized by upland plant species. Many western North American rivers have tamarisk and Russian olive on floodplains abandoned by channel incision, river regulation or both. Our results are widely applicable to sites where drying has occurred and vegetation establishment following shrub removal is likely to be by upland species.     

Regenerative role of seed banks following an intense soil disturbance

Our main aim was to determine the contribution of the seed bank to vegetation regeneration following a disturbance consisting in a deep ploughing and a thorough homogenisation of a perennial grassland. In the seed bank prior to disturbance, seed distribution through the vertical soil profile was evaluated to determine the initial seed species structure. Then, several characteristics of the shallow seed bank and the extant vegetation were evaluated prior and following field disturbance: seed species composition and abundance, and species composition of the aboveground vegetation. The contribution of seed rain versus seed bank was evaluated by means of the comparison of the vegetation developed in plots filled with sterilised soil (seed bank removal) and the vegetation developed in non-sterilised plots in the field. The distribution of seeds through the profile indicated a sharp decline in abundance with depth, and it was probably linked to propagule morphology, with small and rounded seeds proner to being buried deeper than larger seeds. In the grassland prior to disturbance, the aboveground vegetation and seed bank species composition showed very low similarity index, most likely because during the 5 years following field abandonment, sheep pressure had caused a faster change in aboveground vegetation species composition than in seed bank species composition. Ploughing and homogenisation of the grassland led to low seed abundance in the shallow soil layer caused by dilution of the seed bank. Regardless of impoverishment in seed abundance and species richness, comparison between sterilised and non-sterilised plots showed that the seed bank acted as an effective source of colonising species and determined the aboveground species composition. To summarise, this study outlines the importance of considering several characteristics of the seed bank, such as species composition and seed abundance, in the understanding of the function of seed bank and dynamics of the vegetation following a deep ploughing and homogenisation treatment.     

红壤侵蚀区植被恢复过程中土壤种子库变化特征

土壤侵蚀作为一种自然营力和自然干扰形式对土壤种子库的次分布与物种组成具有一定的影响。本研究对典型红壤侵蚀区裸地(Ⅰ号)、马尾松林地(Ⅱ、Ⅲ、Ⅳ号)和次生林(Ⅴ号)等5处不同植被恢复区的土壤种子库物种组成、储量及分布格局进行研究,探究在植被恢复过程中土壤侵蚀对土壤种子库的影响。结果表明: 研究区土壤种子库共统计到21种物种,物种丰富度低,以草本种类为主。各样地土壤种子库密度为56.7～793.3粒·m^-2,样地间差异显著,土壤种子库密度随着土壤侵蚀强度加重而明显下降。各样地浅层0～2 cm土壤种子库密度随着上坡-中坡-下坡的变化均呈增加趋势;剧烈侵蚀地和强烈侵蚀地土壤种子库主要分布在5～10 cm深层土壤内,且中上坡0～2 cm土层几乎没有种子。土壤侵蚀使得土壤种子库在土层中的分布呈现深层化,植被恢复后深层种子库积累仍需要较长的时间。     

Shrub invasion into subalpine vegetation: implications for restoration of the native ecosystem

The ability of plant communities to recover after non-native species invasion will depend upon the nature of their soil seed bank and seed rain characteristics. This study assessed changes in the soil seed bank and seed rain associated with the invasion of the non-native shrub Cytisus scoparius in subalpine vegetation. Soil seed bank and seed rain composition, density and richness were investigated at three areas of different stages of invasion: (i) recent (8–10 years), (ii) mature (15–16 years) and (iii) long-term (25 years). There were few changes in seed bank composition or richness regardless of invasion stage. By contrast, the seed rain composition, richness and density was substantially different within long-invaded areas. Very few seeds were able to colonise the dense barrier characteristic of larger, more mature C. scoparius stands. Some prominent herbs from the native vegetation were under-represented or absent from the seed bank, both in invaded and uninvaded areas. Laboratory germination experiments demonstrated that most native species germinate easily, which may imply a transient seed bank, rather than a persistent one. The majority of herbaceous and shrub species were capable of resprouting vegetatively. Therefore, regeneration appeared more reliant on the bud and tuber bank than a persistent soil seed bank. The dominance of graminoid species and C. scoparius rather than other herbaceous, shrub or tree species suggests that the regenerating vegetation will be dominated by grass species and/or C. scoparius. Hence, in areas where long-invaded C.␣scoparius stands are present the recovery of native subalpine vegetation maybe difficult. Recovery may only be possible through wind dispersal from the surrounding intact vegetation or through actively reseeding the area. This study highlights the importance of early intervention in invasive species management.     

The dynamics of three shrub species in a fire-prone temperate savanna: the interplay between the seed bank, seed rain and fire regime

A model was developed to assess how the seed rain and fire regime affect seed bank dynamics and seedling establishment of three native shrub species (Acanthostyles buniifolius, Baccharis pingraea and Baccharis dracunculifolia) with different regeneration strategies, in temperate South American savanna. Seed bank and seed rain were quantified for each species under different fire regimes, and their relative roles in regeneration were evaluated. All species had short-term persistent seed banks and high annual variability in seed production. A high proportion of seeds deposited in the seed rain produced seedlings after fire; few entered the soil seed bank. Fire killed a high proportion of the seeds in the soil seed bank. Seedlings derived from the seed rain had a higher probability of surviving for 2 years than seedlings emerging from the soil seed bank. In the absence of fire, establishment depended on germination both from the seed rain and the soil seed bank, whereas with annual fire, establishment was primarily dependent on germination of seeds arriving in the annual seed rain, regardless of species’ regeneration strategies. These results help to explain changes in the vegetation of South American temperate savannas as a result of changes in fire regime and grazing management during the last 50 years. By revealing the crucial roles of the soil seed bank and seed rain in regeneration, this study provides vital information for the development of appropriate management practices to control populations of shrub species with different regeneration strategies in South American temperate savannas.     

Limitations to plant establishment on eroded slopes in southeastern Spain

Abstract. The possible causes for the lack of vegetation in five badland sites from southeast Spain were experimentally tested. The main factors affecting seed germination and seedling survival considered were seed availability, regolith water dynamics in relation to rain events, regolith salinity, seedling predation by herbivores and seedling removal by erosion. Four issues are addressed: 1. Both rainfall and the temporal and spatial dynamics of regolith water during the seedling emergence period were monitored in five different zones at one site (Petrer, Alicante). 2. Effects of salinity and water potential on the rate and speed of germination of local seeds were determined. 3. Seed reserve and seedling emergence and mortality were followed throughout one season. 4. Regolith characteristics of all five sites were compared and the consequences for plant colonization discussed. The main factor limiting plant colonization in these sites was the very short duration of available water in the soil, due to the physical and chemical characteristics of the regolith. In addition, high regolith salinity and its effects on seed germination, the aspect of the site and the pattern of rain events, played a very important role reducing germination and survival. Herbivory and erosion were seldom responsible for seedling mortality. However, there were no highly erosive rain events during the study period, although several have been measured during the past few years.     

Soil seed bank in different vegetation types in the Loess Plateau region and its role in vegetation restoration

In the Loess Plateau region, soil erosion is a serious problem. Vegetation restoration is an effective approach to control soil erosion and improve ecosystems. The soil seed bank generally plays an important role in vegetation restoration after disturbance. Thus, we reviewed soil seed bank studies to reveal the soil seed bank characteristics and its role in vegetation restoration in three vegetation types (forest, forest‐steppe, and steppe). We selected 38 seed bank studies and analyzed several seed bank characteristics, such as seed density, species composition, and the relationship between seed size and seed bank. We also assessed the role of the soil seed bank in vegetation restoration. The soil seed bank density ranged from 2,331 ± 1,993 to 6,985 ± 4,047 seeds/m² among the different vegetation types. In the soil seed bank, perennial herbs and grasses accounted for 51.5% of the total species. Native species that were dominant or common in the standing vegetation usually had relatively high seed bank densities. Moreover, species with smaller seeds generally had higher soil seed bank densities. The present study indicates that the soil seed bank plays a significant role in spontaneous vegetation restoration, especially during the early successional stages in abandoned slope farmlands and grazing‐excluded grasslands. However, species with large seeds or transient soil seed banks should be reintroduced through seeding to accelerate target species restoration. More studies on soil seed banks need to be conducted to comprehensively reveal their characteristics.     

Importance of the soil seed bank of disturbed sites in Chilean matorral in early secondary succession

Abstract. The dynamics of the seed bank may provide clues to the process of recovery of the vegetation of disturbed sites. The role of the seed bank may be more important in areas with a seasonal climate than in areas where seedling recruitment is not limited to one season. We studied the seed bank and the seed rain in three sites of the Chilean mediterranean-climate region (33° 48'S) which differed in the degree of anthropic disturbance: a closed-canopy, second-growth forest; an open matorral; and an old-field. Additionally, we tested the germination of seeds from the soil and from the current-year seed crop. The seed bank varied considerably between the two years of study, although no change in the vegetation could be observed. Seed density and species richness were lower in 1989 than in 1988. The seed bank of the second-growth forest changed less between years, while the old-field showed the largest change. The highest seed rain occurred under shrub patches in the open matorral, while few seeds fell in the spaces between shrub clumps or in the old-field. In the forest, seed rain was low and correlated with species cover. Germination was low (0 - 15%) in tests using either soil samples or fresh seeds. These results indicate that matorral succession is a very slow process, limited mainly by low germination and low arrival of propagules to open areas. Most woody species have animal-disseminated fleshy propagules. The presence of established shrubs which may serve as perches or refuges for animals increases species richness in the seed rain and the seed bank.     

土壤种子库的研究进展及若干研究热点

 土壤种子库是指存在于表层土壤（包括凋落物）中的有生命的种子。土壤种子库的研究已是植物生态学研究不可缺少的一部分,现已成为植物种群生态学中比较活跃的领域。土壤种子库时期是植物种群生活史的一个重要阶段,有人称之为潜种群阶段。土壤种子库对一年生植物来说尤其重要。土壤种子库简单地可分为瞬时土壤种子库和长久土壤种子库,即使给予理想的萌发条件如季节、温度、湿度等,土壤种子库中也仍有部分种子保持休眠状态,休眠的种子组成了土壤长久种子库的成分。时空异质性是土壤种子库的基本特性之一,不仅不同植被类型的土壤种子库具有不同的组成、大小和多样性,而且微环境也影响土壤种子库的分布格局。由于萌发、捕食和衰老等原因,土壤种子库具有季节动态,一般在旧种子萌发之后,新种子散布之前达到最低点。在高等植物占据的大多数生境中,以休眠繁殖体形式存在的个体远远超过地上植株的数量;土壤种子库、幼苗库和成年植被相互联系相互影响。由于各种原因如群落类型的差异、群落的演替阶段、取样的时间等,地上植被和土壤种子库之间关系大体上可分为两种情况,即相似性和差异性;研究土壤种子库的方法通常有萌发法和物理分离法。土壤种子库能部分反应群落的历史,对退化生态系统的恢复起着重要的作用。目前土壤种子库的主要研究热点问题可分为以下几个方面：1）土壤种子库的研究方法,2）土壤种子库的分类问题,3）土壤种子库分布的时空格局,4）地上植被和土壤种子库的关系,5）土壤种子库的动态等。     

Fourteen months of seed rain in three Australian semi‐arid communities

The abundance and composition of seed rain was measured over 14 months (February 2004 to March 2005) in Currawinya National Park, western Queensland. The experimental design included four measurement periods, three vegetation communities and two grazing regimes. A total of 12 586 seeds from 104 species were captured. There were significantly more seeds and species captured during the measurement period with the least rainfall, although no significant correlation was found between the amount of rainfall and the number of seeds or species captured. More seeds and species were captured where native and feral grazing pressure was removed, but this was only significant for the number of species. The above‐ground vegetation showed no significant difference between grazing treatments over the study period and exhibited far fewer species than the seed rain. However, the majority of species found in the above‐ground vegetation were represented in the seed rain. Hypotheses are explored as an attempt to understand the apparent lack of a relationship between seed rain and rainfall. The effects of grazing and seed movement and storage are also discussed.     

Barriers to Forest Regeneration in an Abandoned Pasture in Puerto Rico

Sources of forest regeneration (soil seed bank, seed rain) and barriers to seedling establishment were examined in a recently abandoned pasture in eastern Puerto Rico. Few woody species were found in the soil seed bank or in the seed rain. The number of seeds and species in the seed rain and soil seed bank declined with distance from the adjacent secondary forest. Nine species naturally dispersed and colonized plots during the study, with the wind‐dispersed tree Tabebuia heterophylla being the predominant colonizer (91% of all seedlings). Barriers to seedling establishment were determined using a blocked field experiment with eleven woody species representative of a variety of life histories. Each species was planted under the pasture vegetation (control) or in areas where all vegetation was removed (removal). Germination was enhanced for four species in the control treatment, five species were not affected, and two species did not germinate under either treatment. Survival to 6 months was higher in the removal treatment for two species. Seedling biomass was greater in the removal treatment at 12 months for one species. Seed mass was a good predictor of germination success and final shoot biomass, but not survival. This study demonstrates that seeding recently abandoned pastures with a mix of known pioneer species may accelerate the rate of secondary succession, but some species will have to be planted in later successional stages in order to overcome strong barriers to establishment.     

茂兰喀斯特森林中华蚊母树群落土壤种子库动态初探

 茂兰喀斯特森林中华蚊母树群落900m2样地内共有种子植物59种,其中19种主要植物已繁殖产生种子。群落每年以种子雨形式向种子库输入种子351.1粒·m-2,其中对群落更新有用的成熟有效种子150.8粒·m-2。土壤种子库中活力种子丰富,共有41种2510.5～2646.8粒·m-2。种子库中活力种子的种类和数量均随时间的变化而变化,不同时间种子库的差异主要在于现存植物活力种子的变化。土壤种子库每年输出活力种子171.9粒·m-2,其中萌发输出21.9粒·m-2,动物采食输出133.5粒·m-2,病菌危害引起的输出为3.2粒·m-2,种子自然衰老引起的输出为13.3粒·m-2。每年输出超过输入21.1粒·m-2。演替前期植物种子没有输入,只有缓慢输出,但没有萌发输出。     

Soil seed bank in a patchy vegetation of coastal sandy plains in southeastern Brazil

Large seed banks have been found in tropical dry forests and also in habitats with high seasonality in rainfall. However, patchily structured vegetation could induce great spatial variation in the seed bank. We characterized the seed bank in a patchy vegetation of restinga, a common type of coastal vegetation found in the Atlantic forest biome. We also evaluated whether there is any spatial variation between the litter and soil layer, bare sand, and the edge and center of vegetation patches with distinct species dominance. We found 104 seeds/m² in the seed bank using a 5‐cm‐depth sampling. Seven out of 16 species found in the restinga seed bank germinated; two of these were found in the early stages of vegetation patches. We found a higher number of seeds at the edge than in the center of vegetation patches. However, there were no significant differences in the number of seeds in the seed bank between the litter and soil layer, and between vegetation patches with distinct species dominance. Bare sandy soils had lower seed bank densities than vegetation patches. A small seed bank size might be explained by the low proportion of seeds from herbaceous and woody species, which are pioneers in the Atlantic forest. However, seed bank might play an important role in the early stages of the successional process, due to the occurrence of the few species that are able to colonize new young vegetation patches.     

The soil seed bank and understorey regeneration in Eucalyptus regnans forest,Victoria

Abstract The soil seed bank and its relation to the extant vegetation in a Eucalyptus regnans F. Muell. forest in the Central Highlands of Victoria were examined. The average seed density was 430 germinable seeds m^?2 to a depth of 2 cm. There was a polynomial regression relationship between the density and species richness of seeds in soil and forest age (0. 6–54 years). Species richness was not significantly different among soil depths (0- 2 , 2- 5 , 5–10 and 10–20 cm) in the forest stand of 54 years old. More seeds germinated from the 5–10 cm depth than from the other depths. Forbs accounted for 73% of the total germinable seeds and there was no germination of E. regnans. The number of species, particularly woody plant species, germinating from the soil seed bank were significantly lower than in the extant vegetation. However, almost all species present in the soil seed bank were present in the vegetation. The soil seed bank provides an important source for the rapid regeneration of understorey vegetation following clear-cutting and slash-burning in the E. regnans forest. The rapid understorey establishment may play an important role in protecting soil from erosion, in nutrient conservation, replacement and redistribution. The soil seed bank may also be a necessary source of maintaining genetic diversity in the forest over the long term.     

POPULATION BIOLOGY OF BONAMIA GRANDIFLORA (CONVOLVULACEAE): EFFECTS OF FIRE ON PLANT AND SEED BANK DYNAMICS

The effects of disturbance on reproduction and plant and seed bank dynamics in the perennial herb Bonamia grandiflora were studied by comparing populations in recently burned, mechanically disturbed, and undisturbed habitats in central Florida over a 3-year period. Plant densities, seed production, and the occurrence of herbivory and predispersal seed predation varied considerably between sites and between years, with recently disturbed sites supporting the densest and most dynamic populations. Death of established plants was rare in all sites. In each site, the soil seed bank was several-fold larger than single season seed rains suggesting that B. grandiflora seeds are long-lived and accumulate in the soil. There was no evidence that postdispersal predation or pathogens have any significant influence on the seed bank dynamics. Fire resulted in large increases in stem densities due to both increased clonal stem production and new genet recruitment from seed. Burning also caused significant increases in the percentage of flowers producing seed and the numbers of capsules and seeds per plant. The seed rain was ten to thirty times greater in the burned site relative to adjacent unburned site during the 3 years after burning. However, additions to the seed bank from the postfire seed rain were balanced by equivalent losses due primarily to seed mortality during fire, and to a much lesser extent due to germination and new genet establishment. As a result, the subsequent densities of seeds stored in the soil in these two sites were similar, indicating that fire results in a significant turnover in the seed bank population but no immediate change in its size. These effects on seed bank dynamics, in addition to new genet recruitment, suggest that periodic fires may play an important role in the maintenance of genetic variability as well as the size of these populations.     

Seed rain and soil seed bank of Picea asperata Mast. in subalpine coniferous forest of western Sichuan,China

Abstract

Dragon spruce (Picea asperata Mast.) is widely planted on clear-cuts from natural subalpine coniferous forests in western Sichuan. To assess the natural regeneration potential of this species in spruce plantations of different ages, field studies on the seed rain, seed bank, and seedling recruitment were conducted in 20-year, 30-year, and 60-year plantations, and in a retained natural forest ca. 150 years old for comparison. Moreover, a series of temperature and light regimes were also designed in March 2003 to test germination/dormancy responses of the P. asperata seeds to different conditions. In the plantations considered, both the densities of seed rain and soil seed bank increased with increasing stand age, whereas they were both low beneath the natural forest partially due to low adult density of P. asperata adult trees. P. asperata has a transient seed bank, and ca. 60% of seeds were found in the litter layer. Seed decay and seed predation were the two most important factors affecting soil seed bank dynamics, which caused a number of seed losses from the soil. Only a small fraction germinated and produced seedlings, and the indices of the losses from the seed bank via germination in the 30-year plantation, 60-year plantation and natural forest were 4.75, 5.10, and 2.80%, respectively. High seedling mortality was observed after seedling emergence, and most of the germinated seedlings died out within one growing season. The P. asperata seeds showed a high percent germination and no significant differences under most light and temperature regimes except for full sunlight or temperature below 5°C. In conclusion, despite a substantial number of seed produced, the high depletion of soil seed, the low seedling output, and high seedling mortality may obscure the natural regeneration potential of this tree species.     

Soil seed bank composition along a forest chronosequence in seasonally moist tropical forest,Panama

Abstract. We used a forest chronosequence at the Barro Colorado Nature Monument (BCNM) to examine changes in the abundance and species composition of seeds in the soil during forest succession. At each of eight sites varying from 20 yr to 100 yr since abandonment, and at two old-growth (> 500 yr) forest stands, we established two 160-m transects and sampled the surface 0–3 cm of soil in cores collected at each 5 m interval. Seed densities were estimated from the number of seedlings germinated from the soil over a six-week period. Contrary to expectation, neither the density of the soil seed bank, nor species richness or diversity were directly related to age since abandonment, but the density of the soil seed bank was correlated with the abundance of seed-bank-forming species in the standing vegetation. In marked contrast to published studies, herbaceous taxa were rare even in the youngest stands, and the common tree species, which accounted for most seeds in the soil, were present in all stands. The pioneer tree Miconia argentea (Melastomataceae) was the single most common species in the seed bank, accounting for 62% of seeds and present in 92% of soil samples. Rapid recovery of the vegetation of young regrowth stands on BCNM, when compared to sites elsewhere may be partly due to allochthonous seed rain from nearby mature forest stands and the lack of seed inputs of weeds and grasses from agricultural and pasture lands which may inhibit forest succession.     

川西米亚罗亚高山云杉林种子雨和土壤种子库研究

 对川西米亚罗亚高山20、30、60年人工云杉(Picea asperata)林及天然林的种子雨和土壤种子库进行了研究。结果表明：该区云杉种子雨一般从每年的10月初开始下落,一直到翌年的1月底结束,但不同林龄的云杉种子雨强度不同,60年人工林种子雨量最大,然后依次为30年人工林、天然林、20年人工林,其大小分别为(1 088.16±52.34)粒•m－2、(973.45±63.12)粒•m－2、(579.99±28.93)粒•m－2、(66.73±5.71)粒•m－2。云杉降雨历程与其林龄大小也有一定的关系,表现在种子雨发生时间和降雨高峰期的不同。30、60年人工云杉林及天然林下土壤种子库存在显著差异,两次取样（2003年3月26日和2003年8月21日）土壤种子库大小分别为(507.2±40.32)粒•m－2和(267.6±25.14)粒•m－2、(1 065.6±88.06)粒•m－2和(872.8±77.12)粒•m－2、(472.8±20.82)粒•m－2和(185.5±22.48)粒•m－2。土壤种子库中云杉种子主要都集中在枯枝落叶层,占66%左右,0～2 cm层占24%左右,2～5 cm层占10%左右。到8月21日,土壤中所有云杉种子都失去活力,腐烂死亡和动物取食是种子库损耗的主要因素。云杉种子库属于Thompson和Grime定义的第Ⅱ类。该区云杉幼苗一般在6月初开始出现,6月中旬左右达到出苗高峰,3种云杉林下幼苗密度差异很大,60年人工林下幼苗最多,其次为30年人工林和天然林。由于生境适合度低,死亡的幼苗数量较多,特别是自然死亡数。综合种子雨、种子库和转换的幼苗数量几个方面来看,在一定龄级范围内,人工林结实能力和更新潜力随林龄增加而增加,且人工林在更新潜力方面比天然林（约150年）要好。虽然该区云杉林下有大量种子下落,但由于种子大量损耗和幼苗死亡,种子萌发为幼苗再通过环境筛作用而最终补充到云杉种群的个体数量非常有限。     

Seed dynamics during forest succession in Costa Rica

Soil seed banks and current seed inputs each play a role in tropical succession. We compared the abundance and floristic composition of seeds from these two sources at a Costa Rican site by germinating seeds from the soil, measuring seed inputs for 3 yr, and monitoring the earliest colonists in a forest clearing.There were an estimated 6800 viable seeds/m² in the soil of 3.3-yr-old vegetation, 9500 seeds/m² in 11-yr-old vegetation, and 7000 seeds/m² in a 75-yr-old forest. An estimated 10100 seeds/m² fell on the soil surface of the young successional vegetation during 3 yr and 3700 seeds/m² fell during that same time in the forest.Locally produced seeds accounted for about 75% of the seed input to the soil surface early in succession. Seeds dispersed out of young successional vegetation increased the quantity and species richness of the seed input and storage in an adjacent forest. Much of the species richness of the young successional vegetation resulted from seeds dispersed there from other communities by animals.Deforestation stimulated germination of most seeds in the surface soil of the old forest, including seeds of the dominant canopy tree. The recruitment of seedlings from the soil seed bank numerically overwhelmed that from post-disturbance seed rain and sprouts.We evaluated patterns of soil seed storage during succession and predicted the ability of vegetation of differing ages to respond to disturbance. Immediately after disturbance the number of seeds in the soil plummeted due to mortality, low inputs, and germination. As the vegetation regrew, the soil seed bank increased to a peak after 4 to 7 yr, then gradually decreased to its pre-disturbance size. High-frequency pulses of disturbance should result in reduced species richness, dominance by species with long-lived seeds, and fast recovery by seedling recruitment from the soil seed bank.Journal series number 6459 from the Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida 32611, USA.Reprint requests to J. J. E. at Florida.     

Revegetation following soil disturbance in a California meadow: the role of propagule supply

Revegetation following a disturbance event initially should be constrained by the abundance and types of propagules available at the disturbed site. I tested this idea by conducting two experiments in which I created artificial soil disturbances by excavating or burying pre-existing grassland vegetation. In the first experiment, I varied disturbance intensity (depth), to investigate the consequences for revegetation when numbers of surviving propagules (dormant seeds and bulbs) were altered. In the second experiment, I varied the timing of disturbance, to investigate the consequences when disturbed sites experienced differing exposures to seasonal patterns of clonal growth and seed dispersal. I sampled these experiments from 1991 to 1993, and have interpreted their results using measurements of the seed bank, the bulb bank, and the seed rain. In the first (depth) experiment, bulbs declined in abundance with burial depth and were scarcer in deeper excavations. In contrast, numbers of annual graminoids initially showed no trends with respect to disturbance depth. These results reflect the depth distributions of the seed and bulb banks. Since bulbs occur deeply in the soil, progressively deeper disturbances left fewer survivors. Similarly, perennial graminoids could grow through the shallowest burials. In contrast, since the annual-graminoid-dominated seed bank is concentrated near the soil surface, disturbance depth mattered less to these species: any disturbance removing the surface layer was equally destructive. In the second (timing) experiment, more annual graminoids initially occurred in older plots. This result reflects seasonal patterns of seed production: plots exposed to more of the annual-graminoid-dominated seed rain supported higher densities of annual graminoids as a result. In subsequent years, the vegetation of most plots in both experiments was increasingly dominated by annual graminoids, again as a consequence of their great abundance in the seed rain. These results indicate that interactions between soil disturbances and sources of propagules play an important role in controlling early stages of succession in newly created gaps. They also suggest that disturbance may play different roles in communities characterized by species with different reproductive strategies. Understanding sources of colonists will improve our ability to predict the effects of disturbance.