GEOGRAPHIC VARIATION IN THE LIFE HISTORY OF MASTOCARPUS PAPILLATUS (RHODOPHYTA)1

Variation in the geographic distribution of the life histories of Mastocarpus papillatus was investigated. Carpospores were isolated from 377 female gametophytes collected from eight localities on the Pacific coast of Baja California, Mexico, and California, U.S.A., and grown in laboratory culture. All carpospores from a single female gave rise either to basal discs with gametophyte-like uprights or crustose plants formerly referred to the genus Petrocelis. Early stages in the development of each type of germling were observed, and environmental factors affecting development were suggested. Based on carpospore germlings, females from each location were scored as having either the 1) sexual life history (crustose germlings) or 2) direct-development life history (discoid germlings with uprights). All females from the two southernmost locations in Baja California exhibited the sexual life history. In the three locations from the central-southern California coast, 70-95% of the females exhibited the sexual life history and the remainder exhibited the direct-development life history. In two of the three populations from the central-northern California coast, 70-90% of the females exhibited the direct-development life history and the remainder the sexual life history. In the third location from the central-northern California coast, the northernmost location sampled in the current study, 60% of the females exhibited the sexual life history and 40% the direct-development life history. The relative ecological advantages and disadvantages of the life histories are unknown as are the environmental factors that produced the ratios of sexual to direct-development females observed at each location.     

LIFE IN THE FAST LANE: THE LIFE HISTORY OF HARBOR PORPOISES FROM THE GULF OF MAINE

We describe the life history of harbor porpoises in the Gulf of Maine by examining 239 animals killed in gill net fisheries and comparing these findings with the results of previous studies from the Bay of Fundy. Most female porpoises matured at age three and became pregnant each year thereafter. Reproduction was strictly seasonal, with ovulation, conception, and parturition occurring in the spring and early summer. The oldest specimen in the sample was 17 yr of age, but most individuals were younger than 12. The findings are similar to those of earlier studies from the Bay of Fundy and support the hypothesis that these animals form a single population. Harbor porpoises represent one end of a continuum of odontocete life histories that spans a wide diversity of strategies. In comparison with other, large odontocetes, harbor porpoises mature at an earlier age, reproduce more frequently, and live for shorter periods.     

LIFE HISTORY OF COLPOMENIA SINUOSA (SYCTOSIPHONACEAE,PHAEOPHYCEAE) IN THE AZORES1

Colpomenia sinuosa (Mertens ex Roth) Derbès and Solier (Scytosiphonaceae, Phaeophyceae) is a common species on the rocky intertidal shores of the Azores, where reproductive gametophytes occur throughout the year. Life‐history studies of this species were carried out in culture, and both sexual and asexual reproduction were observed. Anisogamous gametes fused to form zygotes. The zygotes gave rise to a filamentous prostrate sporophyte generation bearing unilocular sporangia, under both short‐day and long‐day conditions at 15 and 22°C, and to both unilocular and plurilocular sporangia, under the lower temperature condition. Unispores developed into gametophytes, and plurispores gave rise to filamentous sporophytes. Asexual reproduction was carried out by unfused female gametes and asexual plurispores produced from the same gametophyte. Unfused gametes developed into filamentous prostrate sporophytes producing unilocular sporangia in both culture conditions, and unispores released from the sporangia gave rise to gametophytes. Asexual plurispores from field gametophytes, under both culture conditions, developed directly into new gametophytes. The species exhibited three types of life history: a heteromorphic, diplohaplontic; a heteromorphic, monophasic (both with alternation between the erect and filamentous prostrate thalli); and a monomorphic, monophasic.     

HOST LIFE HISTORY AND THE EVOLUTION OF PARASITE VIRULENCE

Abstract.— We present a general epidemiological model of host‐parasite interactions that includes various forms of superinfection. We use this model to study the effects of different host life‐history traits on the evolution of parasite virulence. In particular, we analyze the effects of natural host death rate on the evolutionarily stable parasite virulence. We show that, contrary to classical predictions, an increase in the natural host death rate may select for lower parasite virulence if some form of superinfection occurs. This result is in agreement with the experimental results and the verbal argument presented by Ebert and Mangin (1997). This experiment is discussed in the light of the present model. We also point out the importance of superinfections for the effect of nonspecific immunity on the evolution of virulence. In a broader perspective, this model demonstrates that the occurrence of multiple infections may qualitatively alter classical predictions concerning the effects of various host life‐history traits on the evolution of parasite virulence.     

OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY OF PAPENFUSSIELLA CALLITRICHA (PHAEOPHYCEAE,CHORDARIALES) IN CULTURE1

Papenfussiella callitricha (Rosenv.) Kylin from eastern Canada was studied in culture. Zoids from unilocular sporangia develop into microscopic, filamentous, dioecious gametophytes which produce isogametes in filament cells and few-chambered plurilocular gametangia. Unfused gametes germinate to reproduce the gametophytes. Fusion takes place between a settled (“female”) and a motile (“male”) gamete. The zygote gives rise to a filamentous plethysmothallus that reproduces asexually by zoids formed in thallus cells and in few-chambered plurilocular zoidangia. Erect macrothalli are produced on the plethysmothallus, beginning with the formation of upright filaments. Later on, these filaments become the terminal assimilators of the macrothalli. Further assimilatory filaments, rhizoids, and unilocular sporangia are produced in a branching region at the base of the terminal assimilator. Zoids from unilocular sporangia formed in culture germinate to reestablish the gametophyte phase. Chromosome counts yielded n = 19 ± 3 for the gametophytes, and 32 ± 6 for the sporophyte, both plethysmothallus and macrothallus.     

GENETIC VARIATION IN HIF SIGNALING UNDERLIES QUANTITATIVE VARIATION IN PHYSIOLOGICAL AND LIFE‐HISTORY TRAITS WITHIN LOWLAND BUTTERFLY POPULATIONS

Oxygen conductance to the tissues determines aerobic metabolic performance in most eukaryotes but has cost/benefit tradeoffs. Here we examine in lowland populations of a butterfly a genetic polymorphism affecting oxygen conductance via the hypoxia‐inducible factor (HIF) pathway, which senses intracellular oxygen and controls the development of oxygen delivery networks. Genetically distinct clades of Glanville fritillary (Melitaea cinxia) across a continental scale maintain, at intermediate frequencies, alleles in a metabolic enzyme (succinate dehydrogenase, SDH) that regulates HIF‐1α. One Sdhd allele was associated with reduced SDH activity rate, twofold greater cross‐sectional area of tracheoles in flight muscle, and better flight performance. Butterflies with less tracheal development had greater post‐flight hypoxia signaling, swollen & disrupted mitochondria, and accelerated aging of flight metabolic performance. Allelic associations with metabolic and aging phenotypes were replicated in samples from different clades. Experimentally elevated succinate in pupae increased the abundance of HIF‐1α and expression of genes responsive to HIF activation, including tracheal morphogenesis genes. These results indicate that the hypoxia inducible pathway, even in lowland populations, can be an important axis for genetic variation underlying intraspecific differences in oxygen delivery, physiological performance, and life history.     

ECOTYPIC VARIATION IN CYSTOCLONIUM PURPUREUM (RHODOPHYTA) SYNCHRONIZES LIFE HISTORY EVENTS IN DIFFERENT REGIONS1

Temperature and daylength responses were determined in culture for isolates of the red alga Cystoclonium purpureum (Hudson) Batters from Nova Scotia (NS, Canada), Helgoland (HE, Germany), and Roscoff (RO, France). Most isolates survived temperatures of –1.5°/–2° to 23°C, whereas 25°C was lethal. Only the RO-gametophytes died at 23°C. Optimal growth conditions were 10°–20°C in both long and short days for the NS isolates and 8°–15°C and 8°–18°C at daylengths of >12 h for the RO and HE isolates, respectively. Tetrasporophytes and gametophytes of the NS isolate reproduced at 10°–20°C in long and short days within 5 months. At lower temperatures reproduction was limited or slow. The European isolates formed tetrasporangia at 10°–20°C (HE) or 5°–l8°C(RO), spermatangia at 5°–15°C (HE) or 5°–20°C (RO), and carpospores at 5°–15°C(HE) or 10°–15°C (RO). Short days either blocked or delayed reproduction of the European isolates. The phenology of C. purpureum was studied at Helgoland and Roscoff, where similar seasonal patterns were observed. In early spring, growth was rapid and plants started to form reproductive structures. In summer, tetra-and carpospores were shed followed by degeneration of the upright axes while branched holdfasts persisted. New upright axes and juvenile plants were formed in autumn, but these remained small during the winter months. Published data indicate that the seasonal pattern at Nova Scotia is similar, although the onset of growth and reproduction is delayed until the end of spring. These observations correspond well with the results of the experiments. The life history of C. purpureum is regulated by temperature and daylength. In the eastern Atlantic, the limiting effect of short days confines growth and reproduction to spring and summer. In the western Atlantic, low winter temperatures alone bring about the same seasonal pattern. After plants have reproduced, uprights degenerate in spite of continuing favorable conditions.     

NATURAL GENETIC VARIATION OF LIFE SPAN,REPRODUCTION, AND JUVENILE GROWTH IN DAPHNIA

The evolutionary theory of senescence predicts that high extrinsic mortality in natural populations should select for accelerated reproductive investment and shortened life span. Here, we test the theory with natural populations of the Daphnia pulex-pulicaria species complex, a group of freshwater zooplankton that spans an environmental gradient of habitat permanence. We document substantial genetic variation in demographic life-history traits among parent and hybrid populations of this complex. Populations from temporary ponds have shorter life spans, earlier and faster increases of intrinsic mortality risk, and earlier and steeper declines in fecundity than populations from permanent lakes. We also examine the age-specific contribution to fitness, measured by reproductive value, and to expected lifetime reproduction; these traits decline faster in populations from temporary ponds. Despite having more rapid senescence, pond Daphnia exhibit faster juvenile growth and higher early fitness, measured as population growth rate (r). Among populations within this species complex we observed negative genetic correlations between r and indices of life-history timing, suggesting trade-offs between early- and late-life performance. Our results cannot be explained by a trade-off between survival and fecundity or by nonevolutionary theories of senescence. Instead, our data are consistent with the evolutionary theory of senescence because the genetic variation in life histories we observed is roughly congruent with the temporal scale of environmental change in the field.     

GENETIC VARIATION FOR PHENOTYPIC PLASTICITY IN THE LARVAL LIFE HISTORY OF SPADEFOOT TOADS (SCAPHIOPUS COUCHII)

Phenotypic plasticity in life-history traits is common. The relationship between phenotype and environment, or reaction norm, associated with life-history plasticity can evolve by natural selection if there is genetic variation within a population for the reaction norm and if the traits involved affect fitness. As with other traits, selection on plasticity in a particular trait or in response to a particular environmental factor may be constrained by trade-offs with other traits that affect fitness. In this paper, I experimentally evaluated broad-sense genetic variation in the reaction norms of age and size at metamorphosis in response to two environmental factors, food level and temperature. Differences among full-sib families in one or both traits were evident in all treatments. However, variation among families in their responses to each treatment (genotype-environment interaction) resulted in variation among treatments in estimated heritabilities and genetic correlations. Age at metamorphosis was equally sensitive to temperature in all families, but size at metamorphosis was more sensitive to temperature in some families than in others. Size at metamorphosis was equally sensitive to food level in all families, but age at metamorphosis was sensitive to food in some families but not in others. At high temperature or low food, the genetic correlation between age and size at metamorphosis was positive, generating a potential trade-off between metamorphosing early to attain higher larval survival and metamorphosing later to achieve larger size. This trade-off extends across treatments: families with the largest average size at metamorphosis achieved larger size with the longest average and greatest plasticity in age at metamorphosis. Other families achieved shorter average larval periods by exhibiting greater plasticity in size at metamorphosis but had the smallest average size at metamorphosis. This trade-off may reflect an underlying functional constraint on the ability to respond optimally to all environments, resulting in persistent genetic variation in reaction norms.     

REPRODUCTION AND LIFE HISTORY OF THE RED ALGA GALAXAURA OBLONGATA (NEMALIALES,GALAXAURACEAE)1

Culture and morphological studies showed that Galaxaura oblongata (Ellis et Solander) Lamouroux has a triphasic life history with conspicuous gametophytes and small filamentous tetrasporophytes. Development of male and female reproductive structures is very similar and both begin with the enlargement of a terminal cell of a filament branch occupying a normal vegetative position within the apical pit of a thallus branch. In male thalli this modified branch forms a conceptacle in which spermatangia are produced. In female thalli, this modified branch forms a three-celled carpogonial branch consisting of a carpogonium, hypogynous cell and basal cell. Filament branches from the basal cell form a pericarp and the gonimoblast develops directly from the carpogonium. Carposporangia are produced in conceptacles which resemble the male conceptacles. About the time the first carposporangia are produced, the carpogonium, hypogynous cell and basal cell form a large fusion cell. Released carpospores germinate in a unipolar or bipolar manner and form small filamentous thalli. Under short day conditions, cruciate tetrasporangia are produced in small clusters. Tetraspores germinate similarly to carpospores and also form small filamentous thalli. Under low nutrient conditions, small cylindrical thalli develop on the filaments and these appear similar to gametophytes collected in nature.     

沙柳河青海湖裸鲤早期资源发生量及时空分布

为了掌握青海湖裸鲤(Gymnocypris przewalksii)资源补充状况, 于2019年5月26日至9月2日逐日在青海湖第二大支流沙柳河开展了青海湖裸鲤早期资源丰度时空变化特征的调查研究, 共采集青海湖裸鲤鱼卵3386粒, 仔鱼4690尾。调查发现, 亲鱼自5月底开始洄游, 鱼卵6月初出现, 6月底至7月初达到高峰, 随后逐渐下降, 至8月中旬基本消失。仔鱼数量自7月初呈波动式上升, 8月达到高峰, 9月初逐渐消失。经估算, 沙柳河鱼卵径流量为25.58×106粒, 仔鱼径流量为62.00×106尾。鱼卵仔鱼空间分布为从河口往上丰度依次递减, 断面水平分布为右岸>左岸>中心。Kruskal-Wallis检验表明, 昼夜鱼卵丰度存在显著差异(P<0.05); 昼夜仔鱼丰度存在极显著性差异(P<0.01), 鱼卵仔鱼漂流高峰期均集中在夜间。鱼卵丰度与流速呈显著正相关(P<0.05), 仔鱼丰度与流速呈极显著正相关(P<0.01), 与径流量日上涨率呈极显著正相关(P<0.01)。研究报道了沙柳河青海湖裸鲤早期资源现状, 填补了该水域青海湖裸鲤早期资源研究的空缺, 为青海湖裸鲤上溯亲本资源量和入湖幼鱼资源量估算提供了数据支撑, 可为青海湖裸鲤资源管理与保护提供科学依据。     

MORPHOLOGY AND LIFE HISTORY OF SCYTOSIPHON LOMENTARIA (SCYTOSIPHONACEAE,PHAEOPHYCEAE) FROM THE AZORES1

Morphological and culture studies of Scytosiphon lomentaria (Lyngbye) Link and Microspongium gelatinosum Reinke (Scytosiphonaceae, Phaeophyceae) were undertaken on material collected on the Island of São Miguel, Azores, where both species were commonly found. Erect thalli of S. lomentaria collected in the field were up to 33 cm long and 2.3 mm wide, tubular, hollow, and commonly constricted at intervals. The plurilocular sporangia were positioned in continuous sori on the thallus surface. Ascocysts were present. In the field, M. gelatinosum formed crustose to slightly pulvinate plants, were spongy in texture, and dark brown to black in color, which were circular or irregularly spreading over several centimeters and firmly attached to the substratum. Sessile unilocular sporangia were located in sori on the crust surface. In culture S. lomentaria plurispores developed into Microspongium‐like crustose prostrate thalli that formed unilocular sporangia. Unispores developed into new erect thalli that formed plurilocular sporangia. Sexual reproduction was not observed. In culture, M. gelatinosum unispores developed into erect thalli identical with S. lomentaria. These results are similar to those reported for other areas and suggest the occurrence in the Azorean plants of a monophasic and heteromorphic life history, involving both entities studied.     

LIFE HISTORY AND IN SITU GROWTH RATES OF ALEXANDRIUM TAYLORI (DINOPHYCEAE, PYRROPHYTA)

Alexandrium taylori Balech is a phototrophic marine dinoflagellate. It produced recurrent blooms during the summer months (July and August) of 1994 to 1997 in La Fosca beach (NW Mediterranean). In addition to a motile vegetative form, A. taylori had two benthic forms: temporary cysts and resting cysts. Temporary cysts were a temporally quiescent stage produced from the ecdysis of the vegetative cell in both natural populations and laboratory cultures. Temporary cysts may divide to form motile cells. Resting cysts had a thicker wall than the temporary cysts and had a red accumulation body. Gametes and planozygotes were also observed in laboratory cultures. Alexandrium taylori showed in situ diurnal vertical migration with an increase of vegetative cells in the water column in the morning through midday, with concentrations peaking in the afternoon followed by lower levels at night. Most vegetative cells lost their thecae and flagella, and with them their motility, turning into temporary cysts that settled in the early evening. The number of temporary cysts in the water column rose in the evening and at night. The temporary cysts gave rise to motile cells the following morning. Synthesis of DNA occurred in vegetative cells at night, and a preferential period of cell division occurred at sunrise. The estimated division rate in the field was 0.4–0.5 vegetative cells·day⁻¹. Temporary cysts had twice the DNA of a G₁ vegetative cell. The minimum in situ division rate of the temporary cysts was 0.14 day⁻¹. The role of the resting and temporary cyst population in the annual recurrence and maintenance of the A. taylori bloom is discussed.     

GENOTYPIC VARIATION AND ALTERNATING DNA LEVELS AT CONSTANT CHROMOSOME NUMBERS IN THE LIFE HISTORY OF THE BROWN ALGA HAPLOSPORA GLOBOSA (TILOPTERIDALES)1

The brown algal order Tilopteridales contains three monospecific genera with reduced life histories, Which are assumed to have been derived form ancestors with oogamous reproduction and alternation of generations. The Newfoundland population of Haplospora globosa Kjellman still shows an alternation of gametophytes and sporophytes, but the chromosome Numbers remain equal because of parthenogenesis and apomeiosis, However, DNA fluorometry showed that the DNA level is twice as high in the Sporophytes as in the gametophytes, The DNA variation at constant chromosome numbers is presumably due to endomitosis combined with a law degree of polyteny. A genotypic variant of Haplospora is represented by the population at Helgoland (F.R.G.) where only sporophytes exist, Spores develop into sporophytes instead of gametophytes, and the plants have reduced chromosome number but the same DNA level as the Newfoundland sporophytes     

ALLOZYME AND ADVERTISEMENT CALL VARIATION IN THE TÚNGARA FROG,PHYSALAEMUS PUSTULOSUS

We analyzed variation in advertisement calls and allozymes in 30 populations along a 5000-km transect throughout most of the range of the túngara frog, Physalaemus pustulosus. All 12 call variables measured show significant differences among populations despite the importance of the advertisement call in species recognition. Some call variables exhibited clinal variation, whereas most others differed between the two major allozyme groups that have invaded Panama at different times, perhaps 4–4.5 million yr apart. Call variables that primarily affect discrimination among conspecifics tended to exhibit greater variation than call variables that are crucial for species recognition. The proximate mechanism of production underlying a call variable, however, is a better predictor of its variation. Contrary to predictions of some sexual selection models, call variation exhibits predictable patterns of geographical variation, although a substantial portion of variation among populations is not explained by geographic position. Although allozymes, calls, and geography usually covary, closer populations can have more similar calls independent of allozyme similarity.     

LIFE HISTORY OF FRASER'S DOLPHIN, LAGENODELPHIS HOSEI, BASED ON A SCHOOL CAPTURED OFF THE PACIFIC COAST OF JAPAN

Life history of Fraser's dolphin, a little known delphinid species, was examined based on 108 specimens from a school captured by the driving fishing method in Japan. The sex ratio was approximately 1:1, and mature dolphins of both sexes formed the bulk of the school. The oldest animals were two males and a female of 17.5 yr. Age and body length at sexual maturity were estimated at 7–10 yr and 220–230 cm in males and 5–8 yr and 210–220 cm in females. Mature males were larger in body length than mature females and showed apparent secondary sexual features: deepening of the tail stock and widening and darkening of the lateral dark stripe. The annual ovulation rate was 0.49. The estimated neonatal length (110 cm) predicts a gestation period of about 12.5 mo and calving peaks in spring and probably also in fall. The calving interval was estimated to be about 2 yr. These life history parameters are similar to those of the striped and pantropical spotted dolphins, except for longevity. The reproductive rate of this species may be lower than that of other pelagic delphinids, if the observed shorter longevity is real.     

SIZE VARIATION,GROWTH STRATEGIES,AND THE EVOLUTION OF MODULARITY IN THE MAMMALIAN SKULL

Allometry is a major determinant of within‐population patterns of association among traits and, therefore, a major component of morphological integration studies. Even so, the influence of size variation over evolutionary change has been largely unappreciated. Here, we explore the interplay between allometric size variation, modularity, and life‐history strategies in the skull from representatives of 35 mammalian families. We start by removing size variation from within‐species data and analyzing its influence on integration magnitudes, modularity patterns, and responses to selection. We also carry out a simulation in which we artificially alter the influence of size variation in within‐taxa matrices. Finally, we explore the relationship between size variation and different growth strategies. We demonstrate that a large portion of the evolution of modularity in the mammalian skull is associated to the evolution of growth strategies. Lineages with highly altricial neonates have adult variation patterns dominated by size variation, leading to high correlations among traits regardless of any underlying modular process and impacting directly their potential to respond to selection. Greater influence of size variation is associated to larger intermodule correlations, less individualized modules, and less flexible responses to natural selection.     

LIFE HISTORY OF BONNEMAISONIA CENICULATA (RHODOPHYTA): A LABORATORY AND FLELD STUDY1, 2

Cystocarpic and spermatangial plants of rarely reported red alga Bonnemaisonia geniculata Gardner, epiphytic on Odonthalia Aoccosa (Esp.) Falk, were collected from june to September 1975 at shell Beach, california. Carpospores inoculated into unialgal culture divided, upon germination, in to two daughter cells, both of which formed erect and rhizoidal axes, Erect axes were uniseriale and alternately branched with a distictive zigzag pattern of axial cells. No tetrasporangia developed in culture. The presumptive tetrasporangia developed in culture to a described genus. Plants morphologically similar to those cultured from carpospores were found at the collection site; they bore tetrasporangia from February to june. Cullured letrasporews gave rise to male and female plants similar to those of field-collected B. geniculate in ca. a I:I ratio. Fertile female plants in the presence of male plants formed cystocarps. Carpospores gave rise to the alternately branched tetrasporophyte phase. Bonnemaisonia geniculate has a heteromorphic life history involving a previously undescribed tetrasporophyte.