Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: V. Estrogen and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide excretion in the black rhinoceros (Diceros bicornis)

A study of female black rhinoceros (Diceros bicomis) urinary steroid and steroid metabolite excretion was performed to determine if techniques useful for monitoring reproductive events in the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis) could be utilized to evaluate the black rhinoceros. Urine samples from 19 zoo-held black rhinoceros were analyzed for estrogen, estrone conjugates (EC), and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PDG) content by direct radioimmunoassays. Estrogen analysis revealed that >95% of the estrogens present in female black rhinoceros urine are conjugated, with estrone and estradiol accounting for virtually all of these estrogens. There is no observable difference in the amount of estrogen present in estrus; postestrus; and early-, mid-, and late-gestation urine samples. Analysis of serial urine samples for EC failed to reveal any discernible levels or patterns which reflected reproductive status. Neither nonpregnant nor early-gestational female black rhinoceros' urine samples contained detectable amounts of PDG. Urinary PDG concentrations became measurable in midgestation (9–12 months prior to parturition) and rose steadily throughout the remainder of gestation. PDG levels declined sharply and became nondetectable 1 day postpartum. Though a wide range in PDG levels was observed among individual pregnant animals, each female consistently excreted increasing amounts of PDG through latter pregnancy.     

Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: X. Pregnancy diagnosis in Perissodactyla

Enzymeimmunoassays (EIAs) for estrone conjugates (EC), pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PDG), and C-19 and C-21 progesterone metabolites (C-19/C-21) were used to analyze urine samples from four nondomestic equid species, four tapir species, and two rhinoceros species in an attempt to identify if these assays could be used for diagnosing and monitoring pregnancy. The same urine samples were also analyzed for the presence of equine chorionic gonadotropin (eCG) activity, using a field dipstick test and a radioimmunoassay (RIA). The EC EIA was validated for three equid species and the Malayan tapir. Neither the PDG nor the C-19/C-21 EIAs were validated in any species evaluated. In equid species, the EC EIA demonstrated a specificity (the percentage of nonpregnant samples identified correctly) of 100% and a sensitivity (the percentage of pregnant samples identified correctly) of ≥ 88%. With the exception of the Grevy's zebra, the C-19/C-21 EIA showed a similar accuracy in identifying pregnant and nonpregnant equids. The PDG EIA was not sufficiently accurate to merit its use in equids or tapirs for pregnancy diagnosis. From the data collected, it appears analysis of a single urine by both the EC EIA and the C-19/C-21 EIA would be the best method of pregnancy detection during the last 2 trimesters of gestation, in equid species. In tapirs, the C-19/C-21 EIA was slightly more accurate for pregnancy diagnosis than the EC EIA. The C-19/C-21 EIA had a specificity of 93%, but a sensitivity of only 73% in tapir species. None of the EIAs evaluated demonstrated a sufficient specificity or sensitivity to be useful, as presently performed, for pregnancy diagnosis from a single sample in the black rhinoceros. The eCG dipstick used in this study did not prove a sufficiently reliable test for routine pregnancy in nondomestic equids. The eCG RIA results in the Przewalski's horses and the Hartman's mountain zebra were positive early in gestation, and indicate that gonadotropin analysis may be useful for pregnancy detection in these species. Only very low amounts of eCG activity was measured by the eCG RIA in the tapir and rhinoceros urine samples. © 1994 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Urinary hormone analysis as a diagnostic tool to evaluate the ovarian function of female gorillas (Gorilla gorilla)

Daily urine samples were collected from 4 adult female gorillas over 7 menstrual cycles. Urinary oestrone conjugate and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PDG) were measured by radioimmunoassay; LH was measured by enzyme immunoassay and each hormone was indexed by creatinine. The quantity of urinary LH during the ovulatory surge was positively correlated with the quantity of PDG excreted during the luteal phase (r = 0.87, P = 0.0013). The observations indicate a relationship between the quality of the LH surge and the levels of PDG in the luteal phase and suggest that both the LH surge and subsequent luteal phase function may be predictable from the oestrogen excretion profile during the follicular phase.     

Urinary steroid evaluations to monitor ovarian function in exotic ungulates: III. Estrone sulfate and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide excretion in the Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis)

A study was undertaken to identify urinary estrogen and progesterone metabolites in the female Indian rhinoceros (Rhinoceros unicornis). Measurements of these metabolites were then used to monitor ovarian function and establish normal levels and patterns of steroid excretion during the estrous cycle and pregnancy. Urine samples were analyzed for estrone sulfate and pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PDG) by direct radioimmunoassays. Both hormones produced discrete profiles reflecting ovarian activity in nonconceptive cycles. The estrous cycle was observed to be 48 days (range 39–64) with a mean follicular phase of 14.8 days (range 13–19), followed by a mean luteal phase of 19 days (range 17–21). Of the single gestation monitored, PDG levels rose above luteal phase levels by the third month after breeding and remained elevated throughout gestation. The combined estrogen and progesterone metabolite profiles present a complete evaluation of ovarian steriod production in the mature female Indian rhinoceros.     

Analysis of urinary immunoreactive steroid metabolites and gonadotropins for characterization of the estrous cycle,breeding period,and seasonal estrous activity of captive killer whales (Orcinus orca)

To increase the basic understanding of killer whale (Orcinus orca) reproductive physiology necessary for the development of artificial breeding programs, we utilized radioimmunoassays (RIA) to detect urinary immunoreactive steroid metabolites (pregnanediol-3α-glucuronide [PdG] and estrone-conjugates [EC]) and gonadotropins (luteinizing hormone [LH] and follicle-stimulating hormone [FSH]) in urine samples from six female killer whales. Urine samples were collected from the whales by voluntary presentation behavior over a 2- to 4-year period. All urinary hormone values were corrected for intersample urine concentration variations by indexing with creatinine. Daily urine samples from four whales were collected during two conceptions and 18 complete estrous cycles. LH, FSH, EC, and PdG immunoreactive levels were determined and combined with observed copulatory activity in five cycles, including two conceptive cycles from two whales. Mean luteal phase lengths ranged from 9.7 to 19.2 days. Mean follicular phase lengths ranged from 6.5 to 16.8 days. Mean estrous cycle lengths based on the first detectable PdG levels were 41.6 ± 6.72 S.E.M. days. After PdG nadir, immunoreactive FSH levels showed a bimodal pattern with the first peak being greater in size, and both preceding a follicular phase EC increase. LH levels > the 95% confidence interval of the mean were considered significant. Combined LH immunoreactive values from whales 2 and 6 during two and three estrous cycles, respectively, had significant LH peak concentrations on day minus 2. These significant LH peaks were assumed to represent the preovulatory LH surge. Eight copulations during two conceptive cycles were observed between whales 2 and 6 and a breeding male. Six of these copulations (3 with each female whale) occurred within 72 hours of the beginning or the end of the presumptive preovulatory LH surge. Estrous activity was seen throughout the year for the herd. However, individuals had varying periods of anestrus that could not be linked to environmental, social, or nutritional influences. The whales that were reproductively successful had anestrus intervals that were usually influenced by gestation, postparturient period, or lactation. The information obtained during this research enhances the foundation for future artificial reproductive management techniques. © 1993 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The effects of a long-term psychosocial stress on reproductive indicators in the baboon

Psychosocial stress is thought to negatively impact fecundity, but human studies are confounded by variation in nutrition and lifestyle. Baboons offer a useful model to test the effect of prolonged mild stress on reproductive indicators in a controlled setting. Following relocation from social groups to solitary housing, a previously documented stressful event for nonhuman primates, daily urine samples, tumescence, and menstrual bleeding were monitored in twenty baboons (Papio sp.) for 120-150 days. Specimens were assayed for estrone conjugates (E1C), pregnanediol-3-glucuronide (PDG), follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH), and cortisol. Linear mixed effects models examined (1) the effects of stress on frequency of anovulation, hormone levels, tumescence and cycle length, and (2) the relationship of cortisol with reproductive indicators. Despite cortisol levels indicative of stress, anovulation was negligible (1% in 102 cycles). PDG, FSH, cycle length, and tumescence declined during the first four cycles, but began recovery by the fifth. Cortisol was negatively associated with FSH but not associated with PDG, E1C or tumescence. Ovulation, E1C, and luteal phase length were not affected. Tumescence tracked changes in FSH and PDG, and thus may be a useful indicator of stress on the reproductive axis. Elevated cortisol was associated with reduced FSH, supporting a model of cortisol action at the hypothalamus rather than the gonad. After four to five menstrual cycles the reproductive indicators began recovery, suggesting adjustment to new housing conditions. In conclusion, individual housing is stressful for captive baboons, as reflected by cortisol and reproductive indicators, although ovulation, a relatively direct proxy for fecundity, is unaffected.     

Photosynthetic response of the Antarctic moss Polytrichum alpestre Hoppe to low temperatures and freeze-thaw stress

The effect of low temperatures and freeze-thaw stress on photosynthetic carbon exchange in an Antarctic population of the turf-forming moss species Polytrichum alpestre Hoppe was investigated using infra-red gas analysis. Photosynthetic recovery from freezing was found to depend on the absolute depth of low temperature experienced. Repeated freeze-thaw cycles caused a greater reduction in gross photosynthesis than constant freezing over the same period of time suggesting that the freeze-thaw event itself, and not just cold temperatures, causes damage. The frequency of freeze-thaw events was significant: freeze-thaw cycles every 12 h inflicted more damage than freezethaw cycles every 24 or 48 h. Most damage occurred during the first cycle; relatively little was recorded during subsequent cycles. At +10°C, gross CO₂ flux was directly proportional to moss water content between 0.3 and 3.5 g·g^–1 dry mass. Moss samples with a low water content withstood freeze-thaw cycles to -5, -10 and-20°C better than samples with a high water content indicating that desiccation in the field may improve survival at low temperatures. Microclimate data for field populations of Polytrichum alpestre at Signy Island suggest that sub-zero temperatures and freeze-thaw stress may act as limiting factors on the species' distribution and viability, particularly when the insulating effect of snow cover is small.     

The daily,weekly, and seasonal cycles of body temperature analyzed at large scale

ABSTRACT

We performed large-scale analyses of circadian and infradian cycles of human body temperature, focusing on changes over the day, week, and year. Temperatures (n= 93,225) were collected using temporal artery thermometers from a Boston emergency department during 2009–2012 and were statistically analyzed using regression with cyclic splines. The overall mean body temperature was 36.7°C (98.1°F), with a 95% confidence interval of 36.7–36.7°C (98.1–98.1°F) and a standard deviation of 0.6°C (1.1°F). Over the day, mean body temperature followed a steady cycle, reaching its minimum at 6:00–8:00 and its maximum at 18:00–20:00. Across days of the week, this diurnal cycle was essentially unchanged, even though activities and sleeping hours change substantially during the weekly cycles of human behavior. Over the year, body temperatures were slightly colder in winter than summer (~0.2°C difference), consistent with most prior studies. We propose these seasonal differences might be due to ambient effects on body temperature that are not eliminated because they fall within the tolerance range of the thermoregulatory system. Over the year, bathyphase (daily time of minimum temperature) appeared to parallel sunrise times, as expected from sunrise’s zeitgeber role in circadian rhythms. However, orthophase (daily time of maximum temperature) and sunset times followed opposite seasonal patterns, with orthophase preceding nightfall in summer and following nightfall in winter. Throughout the year, bathyphase and orthophase remained separated by approximately 12 h, suggesting this interval might be conserved. Finally, although 37.0°C (98.6°F) is widely recognized as the mean or normal human body temperature, analysis showed mean temperature was <37.0°C during all times of day, days of the week, and seasons of the year, supporting prior arguments that the 37.0°C standard has no scientific basis. Overall, this large study showed robust and consistent behavior of the human circadian cycle at the population level, providing a strong example of circadian homeostasis.     

Regulation of heat shock proteins in the apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella during hot summer days and overwintering diapause

Abstract Developing larvae of the apple maggot Rhagoletis pomonella are frequently exposed to summertime apple temperatures that exceed 40 °C and, during their overwintering diapause, pupae are exposed to sub‐zero soil temperatures for prolonged periods. To investigate the potential involvement of heat shock proteins (Hsps) in response to these environmental extremes, the genes encoding Hsp70 and Hsp90 in R. pomonella are cloned and expression monitored during larval feeding within the apple and during overwintering pupal diapause. Larvae reared in the laboratory at constant temperatures of 25, 28 or 35 °C express Hsp90 but very little Hsp70. Larvae do not survive rearing at 40 °C. The temperature cycles to which larvae were exposed inside apples in the field, ranging 16–46.9 °C over a 24‐h period, elicit strong Hsp70 and Hsp90 expression, which begins at mid‐day and reaches a peak in late afternoon, coinciding with peak air and apple temperatures. Heat shock proteins are also expressed strongly by pupae during their overwintering diapause. Hsp70 is not expressed in nondiapausing pupae but is highly expressed throughout diapause. Hsp90 is constitutively expressed in both diapausing and nondiapausing pupae. Rhagoletis pomonella thus strongly expresses its Hsps during pupal diapause, presumably as a protection against low temperature injury, and during larval development to cope with natural temperature cycles prevailing in late summer.     

Temperature-induced phase shifting of circadian rhythms in cotton seedlings as related to variations in chilling resistance

The relationship between the degree of chilling resistance and phase shifting caused by low-temperature pulses was examined in two circadian rhythms in cotton (Gossypium hirsutum L. cv. Deltapine 50) seedlings grown under light-dark cycles of 1212 h at 33° C. The seedlings showed a circadian rhythm of chilling resistance and of cotyledon movement. A pulse of 19° C for 12 h during the chilling-sensitive phase (light period) caused a phase delay of 6 h, while a similar temperature pulse during the chilling-resistant phase (dark period) did not cause any phase shift. Exposure to 19° C, 85% RH (relative humidity) for 12 h during the dark period induced chilling resistance in the following otherwise chilling-sensitive light period. In this light period a 12-h 19° C pulse did not cause a phase shift of chilling resistance. Pulses of low temperatures (5–19° C) were more effective in causing phase delays in the rhythm of cotyledon movement when given during the chilling-sensitive phase than when given during the chilling-resistant phase. A 12-h pulse of 5° C, 100% RH during the light period caused a phase delay of cotyledon movement of 12 h. However, when that pulse had been preceded by a chill-acclimating exposure to 19° C, 85% RH for 12 h during the dark period the phase delay was shortened to 6 h. The correlation between higher degree of chilling resistance and the prevention or shortening of the phase delay caused by low temperatures indicates that the mechanism that increases chilling resistance directly or indirectly confers greater ability for prevention of phase shifting by low temperatures in circadian rhythms.Abbreviations CT circadian time - LDC light-dark cycle of 24 h - RH relative humidity     

Retinally perceived light is not essential for photic regulation of pineal melatonin rhythms in the pigeon: studies with microdialysis

Using in vivo microdialysis, effects of retinally perceived light on pineal melatonin release and its rhythmicity was examined in the pigeon. In the first experiment, light-induced suppression of pineal melatonin release was studied. Although light given to the whole body during the dark strongly suppressed pineal melatonin release to a daytime level, light exclusively delivered to the eyes did not remarkably inhibit melatonin release. In the second experiment, in order to determine whether retinally perceived light has phase-shifting effects on pineal melatonin rhythms, pigeons were given a single light pulse of 2 h at circadian time (CT) 18 and the phases of the second cycle after the light pulse were compared with those of control pigeons without the light pulse. In this experiment, phase advances of pineal melatonin rhythms were observed when the light was given to the whole body but not when only the eyes were illuminated. In a third experiment, after entrainment to light-dark 12:12 (LD 12:12) cycles, birds whose heads were covered with black tapes were transferred into constant light (LL) conditions and only the eyes were exposed to new LD cycles for 7 days (the phase was advanced by 6 h from the previous cycles) using a patching protocol. This procedure, however, could not entrain pineal melatonin rhythms to the retinal LD cycles. These results indicate that the eyes are not essential for photic regulation of pineal melatonin release and its rhythmicity in the pigeon.Abbreviations CT circadian time - LD light-dark - LL constant light - SCN suprachiasmatic nucleus - LLdim constant dim light - NE norepinephrine - SCG superior cervical ganglia - WB whole body - E eye - EX extraretina - C control     

Effects of Neem EC on gas exchange, tracheal ventilation, and water loss in diapausing pupae of Pieris brassicae

Effects of Neem EC (The Indian Neem Tree Company^TM, 1% azadirachtin) on gas exchange cycles, tracheal ventilation, and water loss in diapausing pupae of the large white butterfly, Pieris brassicae L. (Lepidoptera: Pieridae), were studied using a constant volume respirometer combined with an infrared probe actograph. The non‐treated pupae displayed discontinuous gas exchange cycles (DGC) with a trend coinciding with the bursts of carbon dioxide (CO₂) release, active tracheal ventilation, and the heartbeat periods. Two independent forms of tracheal ventilation were observed, relatively vigorous abdominal shaking movements and weak abdominal pulsations. The ability to respond to mechanical excitation with abdominal movements was entirely lost on the 2nd day after treatments with Neem EC, and also a reduced tendency to use a DGC was observed. During 2–3 days after treatments, the DGCs and gas exchange microcycles were entirely lost, as was active ventilation. Before treatments, body mass loss, that is, water loss, was 0.6–0.9 mg g^?1 day^?1. After the treatments, water loss increased to 3–5 mg g^?1 day^?1. The pupae remained alive for 10–15 days after the treatments and died after having lost about 50% of their initial body mass. The absence of heartbeats measured during at least 4–5 h was the main criterion for ascertaining death of pupae. The results suggested that respiratory failures, that is, the loss of cyclic gas exchange, evoked by Neem EC were the primary cause of lethal desiccation. Thus, the hypothesis that the cyclic gas exchange is an adaptation for restricting water losses in insects was supported.     

Evidence that glutamine is involved in neutrophil function

Phosphate-dependent glutaminase (PDG) activity, a key enzyme of glutamine metabolism, was determined in neutrophils obtained from the intra-peritoneal cavity (PC) or bronchoalveolar space (BAS) after administration of 1 ml or 100 microl, respectively of saline, glycogen solution (1%) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS 0.1 mg (100 microl)(-1)). Neutrophils were obtained by lavage of both sites with 20 ml saline 24 h after the administration of the stimuli. Glycogen and LPS, depending on the site the cells were obtained from, differently modulated PDG activity. Cells from BAS stimulated by glycogen or LPS had raised PDG activity to 30.5 +/- 5.2 and 42.7 +/- 12.1 nmol min(-1) mg(-1) protein, respectively, when compared with saline (9.1 +/- 0.9 nmol min(-1) mg(-1) protein); mean +/- SEM. On the other hand, cells from PC showed different PDG activity: 52.0 +/- 12.6 nmol min(-1) mg(-1) for saline, 36.5 +/- 9.5 nmol min(-1) mg(-1) for glycogen, and 76.6 +/- 11.2 nmol min(-1) mg(-1) for LPS; mean +/- SEM. Therefore, PDG activity varies with the site from which neutrophils are obtained and the stimulus imposed. The effect of glutamine on nitric oxide (NO) and tumour necrosis factor (TNF) production by peritoneal neutrophils, obtained after glycogen administration, cultured in the presence of LPS (0.5 microg ml(-1)) was also examined. The addition of glutamine at concentrations varying from 2 to 20 mM did not markedly affect NO production. Glutamine alone at 2 mM did not modify the production of TNF but in the presence of LPS caused a significant decrease. So, glutamine may preserve the function of neutrophils during infections and injuries.     

Cyclic CO(2) emissions during the high temperature pulse of fluctuating thermal regime in eye-pigmented pupae of Megachile rotundata

Megachile rotundata (Hymenoptera: Megachilidae), the primary pollinator used in alfalfa seed production, may need to be exposed to low-temperature storage to slow the insects' development to better match spring emergence with the alfalfa bloom. It has been demonstrated that using a fluctuating thermal regime (FTR) improves the tolerance of pupae to low temperatures. Carbon dioxide emission rates were compared between four different FTRs, all with a base temperature of 6 °C and a daily high-temperature pulse. Four different high-temperature pulses were examined, 15 or 25 °C for 2 h and 20 °C for 1 or 2 h. A subset of pupae at the FTR base temperature of 6 °C exhibited continuous gas exchange and, once ramped to 20 or 25 °C, shifted to cyclic gas exchange. As temperatures were ramped down from the high-temperature pulse to 6 °C, the pupae reverted to continuous gas exchange. The following conclusions about the effect of FTR on the CO₂ emissions of M. rotundata pupae exposed to low-temperature storage during the spring incubation were reached: 1) the high temperature component of the FTR was the best predictor of respiratory pattern; 2) neither pupal body mass nor days in FTR significantly affected which respiratory pattern was expressed during FTRs; 3) cyclic gas exchange was induced only in pupae exposed to temperatures greater than 15 °C during the FTR high temperature pulse; and 4) a two hour pulse at 25 °C doubled the number of CO₂ peaks observed during the FTR pulse as compared to a two hour pulse at 20 °C.     

Differences in the thermal physiology of adult Yarrow's spiny lizards (Sceloporus jarrovii) in relation to sex and body size

Sexual size dimorphism (SSD) is often assumed to reflect the phenotypic consequences of differential selection operating on each sex. Species that exhibit SSD may also show intersexual differences in other traits, including field‐active body temperatures, preferred temperatures, and locomotor performance. For these traits, differences may be correlated with differences in body size or reflect sex‐specific trait optima. Male and female Yarrow's spiny lizards, Sceloporus jarrovii, in a population in southeastern Arizona exhibit a difference in body temperature that is unrelated to variation in body size. The observed sexual variation in body temperature may reflect divergence in thermal physiology between the sexes. To test this hypothesis, we measured the preferred body temperatures of male and female lizards when recently fed and fasted. We also estimated the thermal sensitivity of stamina at seven body temperatures. Variation in these traits provided an opportunity to determine whether body size or sex‐specific variation unrelated to size shaped their thermal physiology. Female lizards, but not males, preferred a lower body temperature when fasted, and this pattern was unrelated to body size. Larger individuals exhibited greater stamina, but we detected no significant effect of sex on the shape or height of the thermal performance curves. The thermal preference of males and females in a thermal gradient exceeded the optimal temperature for performance in both sexes. Our findings suggest that differences in thermal physiology are both sex‐ and size‐based and that peak performance at low body temperatures may be adaptive given the reproductive cycles of this viviparous species. We consider the implications of our findings for the persistence of S. jarrovii and other montane ectotherms in the face of climate warming.     

Effects of twilights on circadian entrainment patterns and reentrainment rates in squirrel monkeys

Entrainment patterns of the circadian rhythms of body temperature and locomotor activity were compared in 6 squirrel monkeys (Saimiri sciureus) exposed to daily illumination cycles with abrupt transitions between light and darkness (LD-rectangular) or with gradual dawn and dusk transitions simulating natural twilights at the equator (LD-twilight). Daytime light intensity was 500 lux, and the total amount of light emitted per day was the same in the two conditions. Mean daytime body temperature levels were stable in LD-rectangular but increased gradually in LD-twilight, reaching peak levels during the dusk twilight. Locomotor activity showed a similar pattern, but with an additional, secondary peak near the end of dawn. Activity duration was about 0.5 h longer in LD-twilight than in LD-rectangular, but the time of activity midpoint was similar in the two conditions. Reentrainment of the body temperature rhythm was faster following an 8-h advance of the LD cycle than following an 8-h delay, but did not differ significantly between the two LD conditions. These results provide no evidence that the inclusion of twilight transitions affected the strength of the LD Zeitgeber, and suggest that the observed differences in the daily patterns reflected direct effects of light intensity on locomotor activity and body temperature rather than an effect of twilights on circadian entrainment mechanisms.Abbreviation LD light-dark     

Methods of patient warming during abdominal surgery

Background

Keeping abdominal surgery patients warm is common and warming methods are needed in power outages during natural disasters. We aimed to evaluate the efficacy of low-cost, low-power warming methods for maintaining normothermia in abdominal surgery patients.

Methods

Patients (n = 160) scheduled for elective abdominal surgery were included in this prospective clinical study. Five warming methods were applied: heated blood transfusion/fluid infusion vs. unheated; wrapping patients vs. not wrapping; applying moist dressings, heated or not; surgical field rinse heated or not; and applying heating blankets or not. Patients’ nasopharyngeal and rectal temperatures were recorded to evaluate warming efficacy. Significant differences were found in mean temperatures of warmed patients compared to those not warmed.

Results

When we compared temperatures of abdominal surgery patient groups receiving three specific warming methods with temperatures of control groups not receiving these methods, significant differences were revealed in temperatures maintained during the surgeries between the warmed groups and controls.

Discussion

The value of maintaining normothermia in patients undergoing abdominal surgery under general anesthesia is accepted. Three effective economical and practically applicable warming methods are combined body wrapping and heating blanket; combined body wrapping, heated moist dressings, and heating blanket; combined body wrapping, heated moist dressings, and warmed surgical rinse fluid, with or without heating blanket. These methods are practically applicable when low-cost method is indeed needed.     

Effects of temperature on the flowering and seed production of Stylosanthes guianensis cultivars

Seedlings of Stylosanthes guianensis var. guianensis were grown for 75 days in 16 h photoperiods and transferred to controlled environment cabinets for a further 112 cycles set at 12 h days and 18, 21, 24 or 27 OC constant temperatures. Floral initiation (FI) occurred in cv. Cook after 21 short-day cycles of 12 h and was independent of temperature. Warm temperatures delayed FI in cv. Schofield and hastened it in cv. Endeavour. Rate of node appearance was positively and the duration of the phase FI to flower appearance negatively related to temperature. Spike production and floret number per spike were maximal for Cook and Endeavour at 24°C; seed setting was independent of temperature above 18°C in Cook. Growth, flowering, and seed production of Endeavour required warm temperatures, but Cook was more versatile in its adaptation to varying temperature regimens.     

Effects of softness of bedding materials upon overnight excretion of urinary catecholamines and sleep quality in warm environmental conditions

The purpose of this study was to investigate whether, when subjects were living in a moderately warm environment: (1) the softness of clothing worn during the daytime could influence the subjects’ preference in the evening for the softness of clothing and a face towel; and (2) the softness of bedding materials could modulate their nocturnal body temperature, overnight urinary catecholamine excretion, and sleep quality. Six females were tested during the luteal phase of their menstrual cycles. The experiment was conducted over three consecutive days and nights in a climatic chamber controlled at 28 ± 0.2 °C and 50% RH during the evening (from 19:30 to 21:30 h) and at 29 ± 0.2 °C and 50% RH during the sleep period (from 22:30 to 07:00 h). The first night was for adaptation to the experimental chamber. Five different sets of clothing and bedding were used; these were identical except for the softness/hardness of the materials used (due to treatment with fabric softener or starch), and material softness decreased in the order: Type A (softest)?>?Type B > Type C > Type D > Type E (hardest). There were two phases to the experiment, conducted in random order. In one phase, subjects wore “soft type” (Type B) T-shirt and shorts in the daytime and, in the other phase, “hard type” (Type D/E) T-shirt and shorts. In both phases, subjects were asked at 21:30 h to select a T-shirt and a face towel which they felt would be most comfortable to use. At night, they slept on bedding (a mattress cover, a pillowcase and a covering blanket) which was of the same degree of softness as the T-shirt and shorts that had been worn in the daytime in that phase. Rectal temperature, skin temperatures at seven sites, and body movement were measured during sleep, an overnight urine sample was taken for measurement of urinary excretion of adrenaline and noradrenaline, and subjective sleep quality was assessed on being woken the following morning. The main results were as follows: (1) T-shirt preference in the evening showed large inter-individual variation but did not differ significantly between the two phases (when “hard type” or “soft type” clothing had been worn during the daytime). The preferred texture of the face towel was softer than that of the T-shirt, the difference in softness between the chosen face towel and T-shirt being significant (p < 0.05 and p < 0.10, respectively, when having worn “soft type” and “hard type” clothing in the daytime). (2) Rectal temperature and mean skin temperature were not significantly different when sleeping with “soft type” (Type B) and “hard type” (Type D/E) bedding materials. (3) Overnight secretions of urinary adrenaline and noradrenaline were significantly less with “soft type” than “hard type” (p < 0.01 and p < 0.05 for adrenaline and noradrenaline, respectively) bedding. (4) When sleeping with “soft type” bedding materials, five out of the six subjects showed less body movements during the sleep period and reported that they had slept better. These results suggest that, in a moderately warm environment, bedding materials with a softer texture might be more comfortable to the subject (due to less tactile stimulation of the skin, which results in neurophysiological relaxation) and provide them with better sleep quality.     

Skin temperature changes in humans induced by local peripheral cooling

Local peripheral cooling (immerson of legs up to the knees into 12°C water) increased heart rate and blood pressure by 10–20% within the first 3–10 min of cooling. During further cooling heart rate remained elevated, while systolic and diastolic blood pressures decreased to the control value. Data on heart rate indicate a permanent activation of the sympathetic nervous system during local cooling.Skin temperatures (measured topically by thermosensors) decreased on some non-cooled areas of the body (fingers, palms and thighs) immediately after the start of local cooling. On the other hand, skin temperatures on chest and forehead were not influenced. During cooling skin temperatures on thighs remained low, but skin temperatures on fingers tended to increase. Changes in skin temperatures on non-cooled areas of the body indicate that a permanent and generalized activation of the sympathetic nervous system occurs during local cooling.Cold induced cycles of vasodilation (CIVD) were observed on fingers, palms and forearms during local cooling. Minute cycles in skin temperatures were observed on forehead, thighs and chest. Minute cycles coincided with those in the heart rate, indicating a permanent, generalized but discontinuous control of vasomotion by the sympathetic nervous system during local cooling.Infrared thermographic recordings from different body areas indicated that local peripheral cooling lowered skin temperatures in all areas of the body within 5 min. Distant areas of the body (extremities) and pectoral muscles showed greater hypothermia than abdominal areas and head. After 10 min of cooling average skin temperatures in all areas of the body returned to the original level and further fluctuated at approximately 10–15 min intervals.Data indicate that during local cooling skin blood flow in all areas of the body surface permanently fluctuates forming a mosaic of dynamic changes in skin temperatures. Since tympanic temperature increases, while skin temperature decreases immediately after the start of the local cooling, it appears that the initial vasoconstrictor response is being controlled independently of the central temperature input.