Advanced agricultural biotechnologies and sustainable agriculture

Agricultural biotechnologies are anchored to a scientific paradigm rooted in experimental biology, whereas sustainable agriculture rests on a biological paradigm that is best described as ecological. Both biotechnology and sustainable agriculture are associated with particular social science paradigms: biotechnology has its foundation in neoclassical economics, but sustainability is framed by an emerging community-centered, problem-solving perspective. Fundamentally, biotechnology and neoclassical economics are reductionist in nature. Sustainability and community problem-solving, however, are nonreductionist. Given these differences, we might see the development of two rather distinct systems of food production in the near future.     

Biotechnology as the engine for the Knowledge-Based Bio-Economy

Abstract

The European Commission has defined the Knowledge-Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) as the process of transforming life science knowledge into new, sustainable, eco-efficient and competitive products. The term “Bio-Economy” encompasses all industries and economic sectors that produce, manage and otherwise exploit biological resources and related services. Over the last decades biotechnologies have led to innovations in many agricultural, industrial, medical sectors and societal activities. Biotechnology will continue to be a major contributor to the Bio-Economy, playing an essential role in support of economic growth, employment, energy supply and a new generation

FP7 provides the research community with funding certainty over the next few years. One of the FP7 thematic priorities is dedicated to the strengthening the European knowledge-based bio-economy bringing together science, industry and relevant stakeholders from Europe and the rest of the world. The conditions are, therefore, favourable towards the sustainable development and deployment of biotechnologies as an engine for the knowledge-based bio-economy.     

“Ecological biotechnology” – the new dimension in technology

Ecological restructuring of all areas is the most essential action needed for the future of our cultures on earth. This paper intends to clarify how human technology activities can be embedded in the cycles of the biosphere.A new quality of life will be maintainable by this concept of ecologically sustainable technology.The background of this innovation is explained in more detail and the fundamentals are eluciatated comprehensively. A series of principles of general validity are derived from the study of ecosystems in biosphere, which are to be transferred to technologies. This will result in the new technology paradigm of “ecologic process engineering” which is part of a new paradigm in sciences.     

Biodiversity, biotechnologies and the philosophy of biology.

The thesis of this paper is that in front of the development of biotechnology and of the capacity of techniques of altering the living, there is still a very old philosophy of biology. A rapid historical view is given where the rise and diffusion of the reductionistic paradigm is presented and the connections between this paradigm and biotechnologies are traced. Curiously biotechnologies are still based on the philosophy of F. Bacon. Then the necessity of a new paradigm in biology based on the recent discoveries of complexity is underlined. It is reminded that the main discovery of science of the XX century is that we are living in a small planet of limited resources and frail equilibriums. This discovery asks for a different view of the scientific progress, more linked to the conservation of the Biosphere than to its alteration. Stability is the task for the future interactions of human-kind with nature. For this reason the relationships between stability and diversity are summarised. Finally, as the species is the main step of Biodiversity, a brief discussion of the problems posed by the altering of species barriers is presented.     

Diffusion of synthetic biology: a challenge to biosafety

One of the main aims of synthetic biology is to make biology easier to engineer. Major efforts in synthetic biology are made to develop a toolbox to design biological systems without having to go through a massive research and technology process. With this “de-skilling” agenda, synthetic biology might finally unleash the full potential of biotechnology and spark a wave of innovation, as more and more people have the necessary skills to engineer biology. But this ultimate domestication of biology could easily lead to unprecedented safety challenges that need to be addressed: more and more people outside the traditional biotechnology community will create self-replicating machines (life) for civil and defence applications, “biohackers” will engineer new life forms at their kitchen table; and illicit substances will be produced synthetically and much cheaper. Such a scenario is a messy and dangerous one, and we need to think about appropriate safety standards now.     

Constraints on the development of biotechnology in Zambia

Biotechnology can play an essential role in fostering the economic and social development of developing countries like Zambia. However, due to a number of constraints, Zambia is not in a position to exploit the emerging opportunities from biotechnology. Prominent among these constraints are the lack of a biotechnology policy, an insufficient number of trained personnel, a poor science and technology base and very little basic research in universities and research institutions. The challenge Zambia must overcome is to establish a capacity and capability to innovate its own biotechnology as well as to adapt biotechnologies developed elsewhere to the Zambian conditions and environment. Despite all the hurdles and setbacks Zambia will face as she endeavours to enter the world of biotechnology, Zambia cannot afford to be a mere spectator as the rest of the world invests and benefits from the promise of biotechnology.The authors are with the Food Technology Research Unit, National Council for Scientific Research, Box 310158 Lusaka, Zambia     

农业生物育种技术的发展历程及产业化对策

伴随千百年来自然物种进化与人类科技进步,世界农业育种经历了原始育种、传统育种和分子育种三个时代的跨越。生物育种是生物技术育种的简称,属于从转基因育种3.0版跨入智能设计育种4.0版、集各种前沿技术大成的新一代分子育种技术,其中最具代表性的包括培育革命性和颠覆性新品种的全基因组选择、基因编辑和合成生物技术。回顾了国内外农业转基因和生物育种技术的发展历程,分析了我国生物育种面临的严峻挑战,提出了加快我国生物育种技术创新的产业化对策。     

Regulatory impact on insect biotechnology and pest management

The application of insect biotechnology is promising for the development of environmentally compatible pest management solutions. As we have refined and enhanced genetic engineering techniques in several insect species that cause significant economic loss and public health injury, it has become clear that insect biotechnology will move forward as one of the key tools of pest management in agriculture and in the human environment. Well characterized genetic elements can be manipulated toward specific aims and maintain a viable insect, albeit one with diminished capacity to exchange genetic material, vector a virus or bacterium, or complete its life cycle. Despite this degree of knowledge and precision, there remain unanswered questions regarding environmental fate, release and public acceptance of this technology. The uncertainty surrounding any novel technology inevitably increases the level of regulatory scrutiny associated with its use. Although the term “insect biotechnology” has many connotations, it certainly includes the genetic modification of symbiotic or commensally associated microbes as a means of delivering a trait (e.g. a toxin) to manage plant and human diseases and insect pests. The distinction between this paratransgenic approach and direct genetic modification of insect pests is an important one biologically as well as from a regulatory standpoint. The regulatory framework for microbial applications to agriculture is in many instances in place; however, we must strive to forge the development of guidelines and regulations that will foster deployment of insect biotechnologies.     

Kuhnian revolutions in neuroscience: the role of tool development

The terms “paradigm” and “paradigm shift” originated in “The Structure of Scientific Revolutions” by Thomas Kuhn. A paradigm can be defined as the generally accepted concepts and practices of a field, and a paradigm shift its replacement in a scientific revolution. A paradigm shift results from a crisis caused by anomalies in a paradigm that reduce its usefulness to a field. Claims of paradigm shifts and revolutions are made frequently in the neurosciences. In this article I will consider neuroscience paradigms, and the claim that new tools and techniques rather than crises have driven paradigm shifts. I will argue that tool development has played a minor role in neuroscience revolutions.     

Beyond the genome: Reconstituting the new genetics

The mapping and sequencing of the human genome has been the 'Holy Grail' of the new genetics, and its publication marks a turning point in the development of modern biotechnology. However, the question remains: what has been the impact of this discovery on how biotechnology develops in science, and in society at large? Using concepts developed in the social studies of science and technology, the paper begins by rehearsing the historical development of the Human Genome Project (HGP), and suggests that its translation into genomics has been achieved through a process of 'black-boxing' to ensure stabilization. It continues by exploring the extent to which the move to genomics is part of a paradigm shift in biotechnology resulting from the conceptual and organizational changes that have occurred following the completion of HGP. The discussion then focuses on whether genomics can be seen as part of the development of socially robust knowledge in late modernity. The paper suggests that there is strong evidence that a transformation is indeed taking place. It concludes by sketching a social scientific agenda for investigating the reconstitution of the new genetics in a post-genomic era using a 'situated' analytic approach based on an understanding of techno-scientific change as both emergent and contingent.     

Regulation of animal biotechnology: research needs

Livestock that result from biotechnology have been a part of agricultural science for over 30 years but have not entered the market place as food or fiber. Two biotechnologies are at the forefront as challenges to the world's systems for regulating the market place: animal clones and transgenic animals. Both technologies have come before the Food and Drug Administration in the United States and it appears that action is imminent for clones. The FDA has asserted principles for evaluation of clones and asserts that "... remaining hazard(s) from cloning are likely to be subtle in nature." The science-based principles recognize that in some areas related to developmental biology and gene expression in clones, additional scientific information would be useful. The role of science then is to use the genomic tools that we have available to answer questions about epigenetic regulation of development and reprogramming of genes to the state found in germ cells. Transgenics pose additional challenges to regulators. If the transgenics are produced using cloning from modified cells then the additional scientific information needed will be related to the effects of insertion and expression of the transgenes. Other approaches such as retrovirally vectored transgenesis will elicit additional questions. These questions will be challenging because the science will have to be related to the expression and function of each gene or class of genes. For the promises of animal biotechnology to be fulfilled, scientists will have to resolve many questions for regulators and the public but tools to answer those questions are rapidly becoming available.     

Genetic engineering in conifer forestry: Technical and social considerations

Summary Over the past 20 years, DNA-based biotechnologies have been applied to agricultural production and many crops with new and useful attributes have been cultivated in various countries. The adoption of this new technology by farmers has been swift, and benefits in terms of increased production per unit land and environmental benefits are becoming obvious. In forestry, the application of biotechnology is somewhat lagging behind and to date there are no commercial plantations with genetically modified trees. However, most tree species used in plantation forestry have been genetically transformed, and results demonstrate the successful and correct expression of new genes in these plants. At the same time, this new technology is being viewed with concern, very similar to the concerns voiced over the use of genetic engineering in agriculture. This paper discusses some of the issues involved for world forestry, with particular focus on future demand for timber and timber products and how modern biotechnology can contribute to meet the growing demand. Tree genetic engineering techniques will be outlined, and results reviewed for a number of species. Concerns over the use of this new technology will be described and analyzed in relation to scientific considerations.     

Biotechnology and sustainable development in sub-Saharan Africa

Whether development is defined by the long-standing economic parameter of per capita gross national product (GNP) or by the newly introduced Human Development Index (HDI), which is not based exclusively on per capita GNP, the countries of sub-Saharan Africa rank at or near the bottom of the developing world. Agriculture and agro-based processing are the mainstays of the economies of the majority of these countries. Because of this, and also because many of the diseases endemic in these countries are communicable, the application of modern biotechnology (including genetic engineering, tissue culture and monoclonal antibody technology) and related biotechnologies could play an important part in creating sustainable development in the region. There is, therefore, an urgent need to train more of the region's indigenous citizens, and to equip more laboratories, in modern biotechnology. It is suggested that, in order to accelerate the harnessing of the fruits of biotechnology, more countries in the region should affiliate with the International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology (ICGEB). It is further suggested that a regional equivalent of the ICGEB be built and the services of non-governmental biotechnology organizations used.The author is with Nnamdi Azikiwe University, P. M. B. 5025, Awka, Nigeria. Address correspondence to P. M. B. 1457, Enugu, Nigeria     

European Union research and innovation perspectives on biotechnology

“Food, Agriculture and Fisheries and Biotechnology” is one of 10 thematic areas in the Cooperation programme of the European Union's 7th Framework Programme for Research, Technological Development and Demonstration Activities (FP7). With a budget of nearly €2 billion for the period 2007–2013, its objective is to foster the development of a European Knowledge-Based Bio-Economy (KBBE) by bringing together science, industry and other stakeholders that produce, manage or otherwise exploit biological resources. Biotechnology plays an important role in addressing social, environmental and economic challenges and it is recognised as a key enabling technology in the transition to a green, low carbon and resource-efficient economy. Biotechnologies for non-health applications have received a considerable attention in FP7 and to date 61 projects on industrial, marine, plant, environmental and emerging biotechnologies have been supported with a contribution of €262.8 million from the European Commission (EC). This article presents an outlook of the research, technological development and demonstration activities in biotechnology currently supported in FP7 within the Cooperation programme, including a brief overview of the policy context.     

La biodiversité : au pays des aveugles le borgne est roi

Our media and policies for environment protection and sustainable development see “Biodiversity” only through what species do (their ecological roles, the “services” they can perform) and forget what species have. However the value we confer to a species cannot be ecologically based only. Rare organs, rare structures, rare character mosaics are valuable as unique products of a historical process even if the species exhibiting them are negligible in terms of ecosystem dynamics. Coelacanths, the platypus, can perfectly disappear from the surface of the planet without any significant ecological impact. The “ecological order” does not reflect the historical order. Systematics is the science of classification whose role is to exhibit this historical order in distribution of attributes among species through phylogenies, and then through classifications. Systematics is forgotten in almost all documents written by scientists to advice politicians on the best way to save biodiversity. Without systematics, we lose the historical dimension of what exists, and we simply lose the knowledge of what is what we are facing.     

A creative collaboration between the science of ecosystem restoration and art for sustainable stormwater management on an urban college campus

This article presents an interdisciplinary, on‐campus, student project, titled “The Rain Project” that I designed as an urban ecosystem restoration model as well as a collaborative pedagogical approach between ecological science and art at George Mason University (GMU), Virginia, U.S.A. A group of students from several disciplines (e.g. environmental science, art, civil engineering, biology, communication, and film/media) participated in designing and constructing a floating wetland for a campus stormwater pond as part of sustainable stormwater management. The Rain Project has numerous implications for college education, scholarship, and service while presenting a novel way of building a sense of community among undergraduate students for ecological awareness and literacy. The work of Jackie Brookner, a renowned eco‐artist who worked extensively on stormwater, and its relevance to the project is discussed. I strongly suggest the need for linking art and the science of ecosystem restoration to best obtain improvements in much‐needed communication for the success of community participatory restoration projects. I also believe that this kind of interdisciplinary, campus project can facilitate the changes we need to train higher education students to be able to both think differently and communicate effectively. The Rain Project introduced students to new learning strategies that connected “systems thinking” with art, ecological science, and restoration practices.     

Nanotechnology: convergence with modern biology and medicine

The worldwide emergence of nanoscale science and engineering was marked by the announcement of the National Nanotechnology Initiative (NNI) in January 2000. Recent research on biosystems at the nanoscale has created one of the most dynamic science and technology domains at the confluence of physical sciences, molecular engineering, biology, biotechnology and medicine. This domain includes better understanding of living and thinking systems, revolutionary biotechnology processes, the synthesis of new drugs and their targeted delivery, regenerative medicine, neuromorphic engineering and developing a sustainable environment. Nanobiosystems research is a priority in many countries and its relevance within nanotechnology is expected to increase in the future.     

Membranes and bioreactors: a technical challenge in biotechnology

Integrating the properties of synthetic membranes with biological catalysts such as cells and enzymes forms the basis of an exciting new technology called membrane bioreactors. The impetus behind this marriage comes from the recent spectacular advances in recombinant DMA and cell fusion technologies and the need to develop competitive bioprocessing schemes to produce complex and active biological molecules. The advantages and limitations of using membrane bioreactors for entrapping whole cells and enzymes are reviewed. Various membrane configurations such as microcapsules, hollow fibers, and flat sheets are compared. Several different entrapped membrane bioreactors, including single, laminated and microporous, for the conversion of optically active enantiomers are described. As with new and exciting technologies, the future of membrane bioreactors in biotechnology will depend on their ability to produce desired molecules at competitive costs.     

Ecosphere,biosphere, or Gaia? What to call the global ecosystem

The terms biosphere, ecosphere, and Gaia are used as names for the global ecosystem. However, each has more than one meaning. Biosphere can mean the totality of living things residing on the Earth, the space occupied by living things, or life and life-support systems (atmosphere, hydrosphere, lithosphere, and pedosphere). Ecosphere is used as a synonym of biosphere and as a term for zones in the universe where life as we know it should be sustainable. Gaia is similar to biosphere (in the sense of life and life-support systems) and ecosphere (in the sense of biosphere as life and life-support systems), but, in its most extreme form, refers to the entire planet as a living entity. A case is made for avoiding the term Gaia (at least as a name for the planetary ecosystem), restricting biosphere to the totality of living things, and adopting the ecosphere as the most apt name for the global ecosystem.     

Life sciences today and tomorrow: emerging biotechnologies

The purpose of this review is to survey current, emerging and predicted future biotechnologies which are impacting, or are likely to impact in the future on the life sciences, with a projection for the coming 20 years. This review is intended to discuss current and future technical strategies, and to explore areas of potential growth during the foreseeable future. Information technology approaches have been employed to gather and collate data. Twelve broad categories of biotechnology have been identified which are currently impacting the life sciences and will continue to do so. In some cases, technology areas are being pushed forward by the requirement to deal with contemporary questions such as the need to address the emergence of anti-microbial resistance. In other cases, the biotechnology application is made feasible by advances in allied fields in biophysics (e.g. biosensing) and biochemistry (e.g. bio-imaging). In all cases, the biotechnologies are underpinned by the rapidly advancing fields of information systems, electronic communications and the World Wide Web together with developments in computing power and the capacity to handle extensive biological data. A rationale and narrative is given for the identification of each technology as a growth area. These technologies have been categorized by major applications, and are discussed further. This review highlights:

• Biotechnology has far-reaching applications which impinge on every aspect of human existence.

• The applications of biotechnology are currently wide ranging and will become even more diverse in the future.

• Access to supercomputing facilities and the ability to manipulate large, complex biological datasets, will significantly enhance knowledge and biotechnological development.