Endocranial morphology of psittacosaurs (Dinosauria: Ceratopsia) based on CT scans of new fossils from the Lower Cretaceous, China

Psittacosaurs, small basal ceratopsians with a parrot-like beak, are among the most abundant dinosaurs, but occur only in the Early Cretaceous of East Asia. Although the general morphology of psittacosaurs is fairly well understood, the endocranial anatomy of the group has never been described. New discoveries of well-preserved skulls from the celebrated Liaoning beds in northeastern China provide the material for conducting research on psittacosaur endocranial morphology. Using computed tomography scans of three-dimensionally preserved skulls, this study reveals basic endocranial anatomy of psittacosaurs and provides the first palaeoneurological evidence of psittacosaurs in relation to their behaviour. Although commonly believed to have had a small brain and small eyes, psittacosaurs had relatively high brain/body size ratios that are comparable to those in the large theropod Tyrannosaurus, and probably had a keen sense of smell and acute vision, as evidenced by their enlarged olfactory lobes and bulbous optic lobes. The configuration of the semicircular canals agrees with limb proportions to suggest that psittacosaurs were agile animals, perhaps better able to escape predation by carnivorous dinosaurs on that account. The behavioural adaptations implied by this study may have been crucial for the successful radiation of psittacosaurs during the Early Cretaceous of East Asia.     

Paleoclimatic Variation and Brain Expansion during Human Evolution

One of the major adaptations during the evolution of Homo sapiens was an increase in brain size. Here we present evidence that a significant and substantial proportion of variation in brain size may be related to changes in temperature. Based on a sample of 109 fossilized hominid skulls, we found that cranial capacities were highly correlated with paleoclimatic changes in temperature, as indexed by oxygen isotope data and sea-surface temperature. Indeed, as much as 52% of the variance in the cranial capacity of these skulls could be accounted for by temperature variation at 100 ka intervals. As an index of more short-term seasonal fluctuations in temperature, we examined the latitude of the sites from which the crania originated. More than 22% of the variance in cranial capacity of these skulls could be accounted for by variation in equatorial distance.     

Machairodus horribilis Schlosser，1903头骨材料记述

Schlosser于1903年根据不明地点的零散牙齿所创建的Machairodus horribilis种一直没有得到古生物学家们的认同。最近发现了产自山西保德的两个剑齿虎头骨及一件下颌。其中的ml和M.horribilis者在大小和形态上都非常接近,据此把上述新材料归入了M.horribi- lis。在与中国及欧洲已知各种对比后,确信M.horribilis应为一有效种。     

The scaling of eye size with body mass in birds

We developed a simple method that uses skulls to estimate the diameter, and hence the mass, of birds'' eyes. Allometric analysis demonstrated that, within five orders (parrots, pigeons, petrels, raptors and owls) and across 104 families of flying birds, eye mass is proportional to (body mass)^0.68 over a range of body masses (6 g to 11.3 kg). As expected from their habits and visual ecology, raptors and owls have enlarged eyes, with masses 1.4 and 2.2 times greater than average birds of the same weight. Taking existing relationships for flight speed on body mass, we find that resolution increases close to (flight speed)^1.333. Consequently, large birds resolve objects at a longer time to contact than small birds. Eye radius and skull size co-vary in strict proportion, suggesting common physiological, aerodynamic and mechanical constraints. Because eye mass scales close to brain mass, metabolic rate and information processing could also be limiting, but the precise factors determining the scaling of eye to body have not been identified.     

Humidity as a source of measurement error in osteometrics

A simple experiment was conducted to test the hypothesis that variation in humidity causes expansion of bone and, thereby, affects measurements of dried, preserved skulls. The experiment consisted of subjecting ten macaque skulls to increased humidity for 24 hours. Measurements of nine skull dimensions taken immediately before and after humidification revealed a statistically significant treatment effect of increased skull size with increased humidity. The length of the molar tooth row increased by about 0.1 mm (0.50%) while the greatest length of the skull increased by about 0.9 mm (0.57%). The specimens returned to their original dimensions within 1-2 days after being removed from the humidity chamber. These results confirm the impression gained by the practical experience of measuring museum specimens in different locations and environments. It appears that bony changes associated with humidity differences represent a real, though minor, source of measurement error in osteometrics.     

Hominin brain evolution--new century, new directions

The study of hominin brain evolution focuses on the interiors of fossilized braincases. Applications of recent three-dimensional computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) techniques for visualizing and measuring >virtual endocasts< from braincases in combination with advances in computer graphics and software for acquiring relevant data are transforming the way in which fossil skulls are analyzed, and improving the quality of paleoneurological investigations. Although CT imaging is preferred for fossil skulls, a novel method that combines high-resolution MRI of physical endocasts, electronic reconstruction of their missing parts, and warping of the resulting virtual endocasts is currently being developed and has great potential for future studies of hominin brain evolution. Applications of CT and MR techniques have already resulted in surprising new findings, which are briefly outlined. Exciting revelations about hominin brain evolution are expected as the 21st century unfolds.     

Growth changes in endocranial capacity in the Cercopithecoidea and Hominoidea

On the basis of examination of 2588 skulls representing 15 genera (56 species) from the Cercopithecoidea, together with 973 skulls representing six genera (10 species) of the Hominoidea, grouped according to stages of dental development, the pattern of postnatal growth change in endocranial volume has emerged as constant throughout Old World Primates. The brain attains 80% of its adult size by the time the deciduous dentition is fully established; 90% by the time the first permanent molars erupt; 95% during the period of eruption of the premolars and second molars; and some 98 % by the time the last permanent teeth are erupting. This constancy in timing of postnatal endocranial growth contrasts with a progressive variation in parameters associated with brain weight-body weight relationship.     

Instruments for transnasal brain removal during embalming by the ancient Egyptians

From the Mook—Collection in Munich 81 skulls and 7 complete heads of mummies found around Thebes and Abydos and dating from 1500–1000 BC were examined by fiberendoscope and operation microscope. Especially the nasal cavities and the ethmoidal perforations were studied through which the ancient moidal perforations were studied through which the ancient Egyptian embalmers removed the brain in the process of mummification. In many skulls these ethmoidal perforations had been nicely and meticulously prepared and we called in question whether this could be achieved merely by means of a metal hook as been described by Herodotus. We saw four different sites of the artificial foramina in the ethmoid. 22 perforations were symmetrically located in the ethmoid, 12 predominantly in the right ethmoid, 49 prediminantly in the left ethmoid and 5 perforations in the sphenoid. We present a new concept about the transnasal approach to the cranium, based on experiments in fresh cadavers in which we were able to remove the brain through the nostril by means of a simple rod of bamboo partially wrapped with moistened linen bandages. This technique of brain removal could during the process of mummification.     

Aberrant growth of maxillary canine teeth in male babirusa (genus Babyrousa)

A worldwide survey of babirusa skulls curated in museum and private collections located 431 that were from adult males and had retained at least one maxillary canine tooth. Eighty-three of these skulls were identified as exhibiting aberrant maxillary canine tooth growth. Twenty-four of the skulls represented babirusa from Buru and the Sula Islands, and forty-five skulls represented babirusa from Sulawesi and the Togian Islands. The remaining series of fourteen babirusa skulls originally came from zoo animals. Fifteen skulls showed anomalous alveolar and tooth rotation in a median plane. Twenty-nine skulls had maxillary canine teeth that did not grow symmetrically towards the median plane of the cranium. Fourteen skulls showed evidence that the tips of one or both maxillary canine teeth had eroded the nasal bones. Twenty-one skulls had maxillary canine teeth that had eroded the frontal bones. The teeth of two skulls had eroded a parietal bone. One skull had two maxillary canines arising from an adjacent pair of alveoli on the left side of the cranium. Three skulls exhibited alveoli with no formed maxillary canine teeth in them. Analysis suggested that approximately 12% of the adult male babirusa in the wild experience erosion of the cranial bony tissues as a result of maxillary canine tooth growth. There was no skeletal evidence that maxillary canine teeth penetrate the eye.     

Transcranial Near-Infrared Laser Transmission (NILT) Profiles (800 nm): Systematic Comparison in Four Common Research Species

Background and Purpose

Transcranial near-infrared laser therapy (TLT) is a promising and novel method to promote neuroprotection and clinical improvement in both acute and chronic neurodegenerative diseases such as acute ischemic stroke (AIS), traumatic brain injury (TBI), and Alzheimer’s disease (AD) patients based upon efficacy in translational animal models. However, there is limited information in the peer-reviewed literature pertaining to transcranial near-infrared laser transmission (NILT) profiles in various species. Thus, in the present study we systematically evaluated NILT characteristics through the skull of 4 different species: mouse, rat, rabbit and human.

Results

Using dehydrated skulls from 3 animal species, using a wavelength of 800nm and a surface power density of 700 mW/cm2, NILT decreased from 40.10% (mouse) to 21.24% (rat) to 11.36% (rabbit) as skull thickness measured at bregma increased from 0.44 mm in mouse to 0.83 mm in rat and then 2.11 mm in rabbit. NILT also significantly increased (p<0.05) when animal skulls were hydrated (i.e. compared to dehydrated); but there was no measurable change in thickness due to hydration.In human calvaria, where mean thickness ranged from 7.19 mm at bregma to 5.91 mm in the parietal skull, only 4.18% and 4.24% of applied near-infrared light was transmitted through the skull. There was a slight (9.2-13.4%), but insignificant effect of hydration state on NILT transmission of human skulls, but there was a significant positive correlation between NILT and thickness at bregma and parietal skull, in both hydrated and dehydrated states.

Conclusion

This is the first systematic study to demonstrate differential NILT through the skulls of 4 different species; with an inverse relationship between NILT and skull thickness. With animal skulls, transmission profiles are dependent upon the hydration state of the skull, with significantly greater penetration through hydrated skulls compared to dehydrated skulls. Using human skulls, we demonstrate a significant correlation between thickness and penetration, but there was no correlation with skull density. The results suggest that TLT should be optimized in animals using novel approaches incorporating human skull characteristics, because of significant variance of NILT profiles directly related to skull thickness.     

中国古人类颅内模及脑演化研究进展

颅内模保存有脑表面的形态结构,是脑演化研究的直接证据。中国最早复原和研究的颅内模来自20世纪20年代北京周口店遗址发现的3号猿人头骨;此后虽然中国境内也相继发现了一些古人类的头骨化石,但由于古人类标本非常珍贵,不允许对其进行实体解剖,加上多数头骨破碎或者内部附有地层胶结物,导致颅内模无法成功复原。受技术水平及研究手段的限制,研究者一般只是侧重于化石外表形态结构的研究。高分辨率工业CT和3D软件的应用,可以在不损坏标本的情况下,虚拟复原出化石的内部解剖结构,使得一些重要的古人类化石标本的颅内模被复原出来,促进了脑演化的研究。近年来,本文第一作者采用新技术、新方法复原了南京直立人、柳江人等一些重要的中国古人类头骨的颅内模,通过对其颅容量、脑沟回特征、脑不对称性、脑表面的动、静脉血管压迹、各脑叶的大小、形状及比例的研究,获取了中国古人类脑形态特征变化的数据,为探讨东亚地区古人类的演化提供了参考信息。     

Extant and fossil Equus (Mammalia, Perissodactyla) skulls: a morphometric definition of the subgenus Equus

A sample of 225 skulls belonging to all extant species of Equus and of 33 fossil skulls of ages comprised between 3.4 Ma and 0.7 Ma was studied by multivariate analyses of size, shape, and form on four axial lengths. A simple bivariate discrimination using the overall palatal length and the cranial length allows an almost complete discrimination between modern (extant and young) equids (subgenus Equus ) and old plesippine and stenonine forms. The modern pattern, possibly related to a bigger brain case, seems to appear less than 1.5 Ma ago in fossil species that can already be recognized as closely related to the extant Grevy's zebras, plains zebras, and horses. This does not support separate branchings of Equus species from a common plesippine stem.     

现代人头骨面部某些特征的投影栅相位法测量研究

用投影栅相位法 ,定量测量现代人面颅骨的一些项目 ,分析比较了中国南方、北方面骨的特点及中国与欧洲现代人面骨的差异 ,并探讨该方法在人类学研究领域应用的可行性和实用性。发现 :1 不论云南、欧洲头骨 ,性别差异主要集中在线距项目上 ,男性测量值大于女性。 2 华北头骨的中面宽、上面高及其指数、颧上颌高和内侧两眶宽指数大于云南头骨 ,中面部的扁平度小于云南头骨 ,颧骨额蝶突的前外侧面比云南头骨的要朝向前方。 3 中国云南、华北现代人头骨上面部的宽度小于欧洲现代人头骨 ,上面部扁平程度大于欧洲现代人头骨; 颧骨额蝶突的前外侧面比欧洲头骨更朝向前方。华北头骨上面部高度及其指数大于欧洲头骨; 云南头骨上面高及男性的上面高指数与欧洲头骨无差异 ,云南女性上面高指数大于欧洲头骨。我们认为投影栅相位法可作为传统测量方法的有益补充。     

2 trephined skulls from Schleswig-Holstein

In Schleswig-Holstein two trephined skulls are found, one belonging to a man deceased in the first half of adult age, who was buried in a stone grave of Middle Neolithic Age from Nebel on the isle of Amrum (published by Schaefer 1958, 1961). Another well preserved one, but without known site in Schleswig-Holstein, is the calvarium of a young adult presumably male showing a circular trephination without any tendency of healing. There is no symptom of a pathological change at the inner vault of the skull, but for the coronal suture gap . Striking are the grooves at both sides of the frontal bone which are quite unknown in this country. They are sulci arteriosi or nervi as is proved by Spanish skulls from Santa Cruz de Teneriffe and cases presented by Dixon (1904). EPIGENETIC TRAITS: 1. One sutural ossicle. 2. Incisura orbitalis r. 3. Threefold foramen supraorbitale 1. 4. Sulci arteriosi on the frontal bone. 5. Aplasia of left right molar (X-ray). PATHOLOGICAL CHANGES: 1. Hypoplasia of frontal sinuses. 2. Closing alveoli of first right molar. The case of a skull from Bremen (Domsdüne) demonstrates by the applied tool, that there are also trephinations in the Middle Neolithic Age.     

Experimental studies in head injury

Summary A method to produce pressure pulses useful in percussion concussion experiments in animals is presented. The pulses can be varied within the range found in acceleration impact pressure patterns in human cadaver skulls.The transmission and distortion of the produced pressure pulses were studied in waterfilled models and in rabbit skulls. Positive pressures are more easily transmitted than negative pressures, particularly through the rabbit skull. The possibility to cause local brain injuries with short negative pressures at the site of input is demonstrated. The vital and cytochemical response of the living animal to pressure pulses will be published elsewhere.This work was supported by grants from the Medical Faculty of the University of Gothenburg, Statens Trafiksäkerhetsråd and Försäkringsaktiebolaget Fylgia.     

山顶洞人与现代华北人头骨非测量性特征比较及中国更新世晚期人类演化的一些问题

山顶洞人化石是迄今在东亚地区发现的数量最为丰富、保存状态最为完好的更新世晚期人类化石。多年来,山顶洞人作为东亚地区更新世晚期人类的代表,在研究东亚地区现代蒙古人种及美洲印第安人起源方面发挥着重要作用。随着对现代人起源与演化研究的深入,学术界对更新世晚期人类演化及现代人群形成过程的许多细节及演化机制予以了越来越多的注意,提出了现代人群出现时间及现代人群分化时间的概念。一些研究对山顶洞人的演化程度及其在东亚地区现代人群形成上的作用也提出了不同看法。为了深入探讨这些问题,本文对12项颅骨非测量特征在山顶洞人与现代中国人的表现情况进行了对比研究。发现有8项特征在山顶洞人与现代中国人之间具有不同的表现,作者认为山顶洞人在颅骨特征表现上较现代中国人具有更多的原始性。在此基础上,作者就更新世晚期人群内部变异、现代人群特征标准等问题进行了讨论。     

山西保德印度熊一新种

记述了印度熊一新种,Indarctos zdanskyi。正型标本是保存在一起的相当完好的头骨、下颌和寰椎,采白山西保德赵家沟的三趾马红土层中。新种以个体大,头骨矢状嵴高耸,乳突特别粗大并向外伸展,外耳道很细长,内鼻孔特别窄长,下颌联合后缘接近p4,颊齿相对较小,前臼齿高度退化,P4长于M1,m1前窄后宽,而m2前宽后窄而区别于本属已知各种。     

Museum genomics: low-cost and high-accuracy genetic data from historical specimens

Natural history collections are unparalleled repositories of geographical and temporal variation in faunal conditions. Molecular studies offer an opportunity to uncover much of this variation; however, genetic studies of historical museum specimens typically rely on extracting highly degraded and chemically modified DNA samples from skins, skulls or other dried samples. Despite this limitation, obtaining short fragments of DNA sequences using traditional PCR amplification of DNA has been the primary method for genetic study of historical specimens. Few laboratories have succeeded in obtaining genome-scale sequences from historical specimens and then only with considerable effort and cost. Here, we describe a low-cost approach using high-throughput next-generation sequencing to obtain reliable genome-scale sequence data from a traditionally preserved mammal skin and skull using a simple extraction protocol. We show that single-nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) from the genome sequences obtained independently from the skin and from the skull are highly repeatable compared to a reference genome.     

A comparison of fox skulls from Wales and South-East England

Seven different measurements of fox skulls from animals of known sex were recorded for 571 fox skulls from Wales and South-East England. A multivariate technique, discriminant function analysis, is used to classify the skulls according to sex and regional origin. Differences detected suggest that male skulls tend to be larger, and that skulls from Wales are larger than those from South-East England. The classifications are presumed to reflect true differences between sexes and regions.