Glycomics of human embryonic stem cells and human induced pluripotent stem cells

Most cells are coated by a dense glycocalyx composed of glycoconjugates such as glycosphingolipids, glycoproteins, and proteoglycans. The overall glycomic profile is believed to be crucial for the diverse roles of glycans, which are mediated by specific interactions that regulate cell-cell adhesion, the immune response, microbial pathogenesis, and other cellular events. Many cell surface markers were discovered and identified as glycoconjugates such as stage-specific embryonic antigen, Tra-1-60/81 and various other cell surface molecules (e.g., cluster of differentiation). Recent progress in the development of analytical methodologies and strategies has begun to clarify the cellular glycomics of various cells including human embryonic stem cells (hESCs) and human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs). The glycomic profiles of these cells are highly cell type-specific and reflect cellular alterations, such as development, differentiation and cancerous change. In this mini review, we briefly summarize the glycosylation spectra specific to hESCs and hiPSCs, which cover glycans of all major glycoconjugates (i.e., glycosphingolipids, N- and O-glycans of glycoproteins, and glycosaminoglycans) and free oligosaccharides.     

Differences in the microrheology of human embryonic stem cells and human induced pluripotent stem cells

Embryonic and adult fibroblasts can be returned to pluripotency by the expression of reprogramming genes. Multiple lines of evidence suggest that these human induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells and human embryonic stem (hES) cells are behaviorally, karyotypically, and morphologically similar. Here we sought to determine whether the physical properties of hiPS cells, including their micromechanical properties, are different from those of hES cells. To this end, we use the method of particle tracking microrheology to compare the viscoelastic properties of the cytoplasm of hES cells, hiPS cells, and the terminally differentiated parental human fibroblasts from which our hiPS cells are derived. Our results indicate that although the cytoplasm of parental fibroblasts is both viscous and elastic, the cytoplasm of hiPS cells does not exhibit any measurable elasticity and is purely viscous over a wide range of timescales. The viscous phenotype of hiPS cells is recapitulated in parental cells with disassembled actin filament network. The cytoplasm of hES cells is predominantly viscous but contains subcellular regions that are also elastic. This study supports the hypothesis that intracellular elasticity correlates with the degree of cellular differentiation and reveals significant differences in the mechanical properties of hiPS cells and hES cells. Because mechanical stimuli have been shown to mediate the precise fate of differentiating stem cells, our results support the concept that stem cell “softness” is a key feature of force-mediated differentiation of stem cells and suggest there may be subtle functional differences between force-mediated differentiation of hiPS cells and hES cells.     

Generation of human melanocytes from induced pluripotent stem cells

Epidermal melanocytes play an important role in protecting the skin from UV rays, and their functional impairment results in pigment disorders. Additionally, melanomas are considered to arise from mutations that accumulate in melanocyte stem cells. The mechanisms underlying melanocyte differentiation and the defining characteristics of melanocyte stem cells in humans are, however, largely unknown. In the present study, we set out to generate melanocytes from human iPS cells in vitro, leading to a preliminary investigation of the mechanisms of human melanocyte differentiation. We generated iPS cell lines from human dermal fibroblasts using the Yamanaka factors (SOX2, OCT3/4, and KLF4, with or without c-MYC). These iPS cell lines were subsequently used to form embryoid bodies (EBs) and then differentiated into melanocytes via culture supplementation with Wnt3a, SCF, and ET-3. Seven weeks after inducing differentiation, pigmented cells expressing melanocyte markers such as MITF, tyrosinase, SILV, and TYRP1, were detected. Melanosomes were identified in these pigmented cells by electron microscopy, and global gene expression profiling of the pigmented cells showed a high similarity to that of human primary foreskin-derived melanocytes, suggesting the successful generation of melanocytes from iPS cells. This in vitro differentiation system should prove useful for understanding human melanocyte biology and revealing the mechanism of various pigment cell disorders, including melanoma.     

A model of cancer stem cells derived from mouse induced pluripotent stem cells

Cancer stem cells (CSCs) are capable of continuous proliferation and self-renewal and are proposed to play significant roles in oncogenesis, tumor growth, metastasis and cancer recurrence. CSCs are considered derived from normal stem cells affected by the tumor microenvironment although the mechanism of development is not clear yet. In 2007, Yamanaka's group succeeded in generating Nanog mouse induced pluripotent stem (miPS) cells, in which green fluorescent protein (GFP) has been inserted into the 5'-untranslated region of the Nanog gene. Usually, iPS cells, just like embryonic stem cells, are considered to be induced into progenitor cells, which differentiate into various normal phenotypes depending on the normal niche. We hypothesized that CSCs could be derived from Nanog miPS cells in the conditioned culture medium of cancer cell lines, which is a mimic of carcinoma microenvironment. As a result, the Nanog miPS cells treated with the conditioned medium of mouse Lewis lung carcinoma acquired characteristics of CSCs, in that they formed spheroids expressing GFP in suspension culture, and had a high tumorigenicity in Balb/c nude mice exhibiting angiogenesis in vivo. In addition, these iPS-derived CSCs had a capacity of self-renewal and expressed the marker genes, Nanog, Rex1, Eras, Esg1 and Cripto, associated with stem cell properties and an undifferentiated state. Thus we concluded that a model of CSCs was originally developed from miPS cells and proposed the conditioned culture medium of cancer cell lines might perform as niche for producing CSCs. The model of CSCs and the procedure of their establishment will help study the genetic alterations and the secreted factors in the tumor microenvironment which convert miPS cells to CSCs. Furthermore, the identification of potentially bona fide markers of CSCs, which will help the development of novel anti-cancer therapies, might be possible though the CSC model.     

Disease-specific induced pluripotent stem cells

Tissue culture of immortal cell strains from diseased patients is an invaluable resource for medical research but is largely limited to tumor cell lines or transformed derivatives of native tissues. Here we describe the generation of induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells from patients with a variety of genetic diseases with either Mendelian or complex inheritance; these diseases include adenosine deaminase deficiency-related severe combined immunodeficiency (ADA-SCID), Shwachman-Bodian-Diamond syndrome (SBDS), Gaucher disease (GD) type III, Duchenne (DMD) and Becker muscular dystrophy (BMD), Parkinson disease (PD), Huntington disease (HD), juvenile-onset, type 1 diabetes mellitus (JDM), Down syndrome (DS)/trisomy 21, and the carrier state of Lesch-Nyhan syndrome. Such disease-specific stem cells offer an unprecedented opportunity to recapitulate both normal and pathologic human tissue formation in vitro, thereby enabling disease investigation and drug development.     

Mouse induced pluripotent stem cells

The recent discovery that it is possible to directly reprogramme somatic cells to an embryonic stem (ES) cell-like pluripotent state, by retroviral transduction of just four genes (Oct3/4, Sox2, c-Myc and Klf4), represents a major breakthrough in stem cell research. The reprogrammed cells, known as induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, possess many of the properties of ES cells, and represent one of the most promising sources of patient-specific cells for use in regenerative medicine. While the ultimate goal is the use of iPS cells in the treatment of human disease, much of the research to date has been carried out with murine cells, and improved mouse iPS cells have been shown to contribute to live chimeric mice that are germ-line competent. Very recently, it has been reported that iPS cells can be generated by three factors without c-Myc, and these cells give rise to chimeric mice with a reduced risk of tumour development.     

Modeling human neurological disorders with induced pluripotent stem cells

Human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells obtained by reprogramming technology are a source of great hope, not only in terms of applications in regenerative medicine, such as cell transplantation therapy, but also for modeling human diseases and new drug development. In particular, the production of iPS cells from the somatic cells of patients with intractable diseases and their subsequent differentiation into cells at affected sites (e.g., neurons, cardiomyocytes, hepatocytes, and myocytes) has permitted the in vitro construction of disease models that contain patient‐specific genetic information. For example, disease‐specific iPS cells have been established from patients with neuropsychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia and autism, as well as from those with neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's disease and Alzheimer's disease. A multi‐omics analysis of neural cells originating from patient‐derived iPS cells may thus enable investigators to elucidate the pathogenic mechanisms of neurological diseases that have heretofore been unknown. In addition, large‐scale screening of chemical libraries with disease‐specific iPS cells is currently underway and is expected to lead to new drug discovery. Accordingly, this review outlines the progress made via the use of patient‐derived iPS cells toward the modeling of neurological disorders, the testing of existing drugs, and the discovery of new drugs.

     

Modelling familial dysautonomia in human induced pluripotent stem cells

Induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells have considerable promise as a novel tool for modelling human disease and for drug discovery. While the generation of disease-specific iPS cells has become routine, realizing the potential of iPS cells in disease modelling poses challenges at multiple fronts. Such challenges include selecting a suitable disease target, directing the fate of iPS cells into symptom-relevant cell populations, identifying disease-related phenotypes and showing reversibility of such phenotypes using genetic or pharmacological approaches. Finally, the system needs to be scalable for use in modern drug discovery. Here, we will discuss these points in the context of modelling familial dysautonomia (FD, Riley-Day syndrome, hereditary sensory and autonomic neuropathy III (HSAN-III)), a rare genetic disorder in the peripheral nervous system. We have demonstrated three disease-specific phenotypes in FD-iPS-derived cells that can be partially rescued by treating cells with the plant hormone kinetin. Here, we will discuss how to use FD-iPS cells further in high throughput drug discovery assays, in modelling disease severity and in performing mechanistic studies aimed at understanding disease pathogenesis. FD is a rare disease but represents an important testing ground for exploring the potential of iPS cell technology in modelling and treating human disease.     

DNA methylation dynamics in human induced pluripotent stem cells

Indeed human induced pluripotent stem cells (hiPSCs) are considered to be powerful tools in regenerative medicine. To enable the use of hiPSCs in the field of regenerative medicine, it is necessary to understand the mechanisms of reprogramming during the transformation of somatic cells into hiPSCs. Genome-wide epigenetic modification constitutes a critical event in the generation of iPSCs. In other words, to analyze epigenetic changes in iPSCs means to elucidate reprogramming processes. We have established a large number of hiPSCs derived from various human tissues and have obtained their DNA methylation profiles. Comparison analyses indicated that the epigenetic patterns of various hiPSCs, irrespective of their source tissue, were very similar to one another and were similar to those of human embryonic stem cells (hESCs). However, the profiles of hiPSCs and hESCs exhibited epigenetic differences, which were caused by random aberrant hypermethylation at early passages. Interestingly, continuous passaging of the hiPSCs diminished the differences between DNA methylation profiles of hiPSCs and hESCs. The number of aberrant DNA methylation regions may thus represent a useful epigenetic index for evaluating hiPSCs in the context of therapeutic applications.     

Methods to produce induced pluripotent stem cell-derived mesenchymal stem cells: Mesenchymal stem cells from induced pluripotent stem cells

Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) have received significant attention in recent years due to their large potential for cell therapy. Indeed, they secrete a wide variety of immunomodulatory factors of interest for the treatment of immune-related disorders and inflammatory diseases. MSCs can be extracted from multiple tissues of the human body. However, several factors may restrict their use for clinical applications: the requirement of invasive procedures for their isolation, their limited numbers, and their heterogeneity according to the tissue of origin or donor. In addition, MSCs often present early signs of replicative senescence limiting their expansion in vitro, and their therapeutic capacity in vivo. Due to the clinical potential of MSCs, a considerable number of methods to differentiate induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSCs) into MSCs have emerged. iPSCs represent a new reliable, unlimited source to generate MSCs (MSCs derived from iPSC, iMSCs) from homogeneous and well-characterized cell lines, which would relieve many of the above mentioned technical and biological limitations. Additionally, the use of iPSCs prevents some of the ethical concerns surrounding the use of human embryonic stem cells. In this review, we analyze the main current protocols used to differentiate human iPSCs into MSCs, which we classify into five different categories: MSC Switch, Embryoid Body Formation, Specific Differentiation, Pathway Inhibitor, and Platelet Lysate. We also evaluate common and method-specific culture components and provide a list of positive and negative markers for MSC characterization. Further guidance on material requirements to produce iMSCs with these methods and on the phenotypic features of the iMSCs obtained is added. The information may help researchers identify protocol options to design and/or refine standardized procedures for large-scale production of iMSCs fitting clinical demands.     

High-efficient generation of induced pluripotent stem cells from human astrocytes

The reprogramming of human somatic cells to induced pluripotent stem (hiPS) cells enables the possibility of generating patient-specific autologous cells for regenerative medicine. A number of human somatic cell types have been reported to generate hiPS cells, including fibroblasts, keratinocytes and peripheral blood cells, with variable reprogramming efficiencies and kinetics. Here, we show that human astrocytes can also be reprogrammed into hiPS (ASThiPS) cells, with similar efficiencies to keratinocytes, which are currently reported to have one of the highest somatic reprogramming efficiencies. ASThiPS lines were indistinguishable from human embryonic stem (ES) cells based on the expression of pluripotent markers and the ability to differentiate into the three embryonic germ layers in vitro by embryoid body generation and in vivo by teratoma formation after injection into immunodeficient mice. Our data demonstrates that a human differentiated neural cell type can be reprogrammed to pluripotency and is consistent with the universality of the somatic reprogramming procedure.     

Establishment of induced pluripotent stem cells from human neonatal tissues

Following the success in establishing human induced pluripotent stem (iPS) cells, research into various applications of the cells derived from human iPS cells has begun in earnest. The use of iPS cell-derived cells in clinical therapies is one of the most exciting of the possible applications. However, the risk of tumorigenicity is the biggest potential obstacle to use iPS cell derivatives in the clinic. It should be noted that the human cells used to generate iPS cell lines may have acquired genetic mutations and these might influence the tumorigenicity of the cells. In particular, the cells of older people have a higher risk of genetic mutations than those of younger people. Here, we show that iPS cells could be derived from short-term cultures of neonatal tissues. The established human iPS cells expressed various markers of undifferentiated cells and formed teratoma in immunodeficient mice. The human iPS cells derived from neonatal tissues may represent a clinical material possessing less tumorigenicity.     

Modeling of Menkes disease via human induced pluripotent stem cells

Menkes disease (MD) is a copper-deficient neurodegenerative disorder that manifests severe neurologic symptoms such as seizures, lethargic states, and hypotonia. Menkes disease is due to a dysfunction of ATP7A, but the pathophysiology of neurologic manifestation is poorly understood during embryonic development. To understand the pathophysiology of neurologic symptoms, molecular and cellular phenotypes were investigated in Menkes disease-derived induced pluripotent stem cells (MD-iPSCs). MD-iPSCs were generated from fibroblasts of a Menkes disease patient. Abnormal reticular distribution of ATP7A was observed in MD-fibroblasts and MD-iPSCs, respectively. MD-iPSCs showed abnormal morphology in appearance during embryoid body (EB) formation as compared with wild type (WT)-iPSCs. Intriguingly, aberrant switch of E-cadherin (E-cad) to N-cadherin (N-cad) and impaired neural rosette formation were shown in MD-iPSCs during early differentiation. When extracellular copper was chelated in WT-iPSCs by treatment with bathocuprione sulfate, aberrant switch of E-cad to N-cad and impaired neuronal differentiation were observed, like in MD-iPSCs. Our results suggest that neurological defects in Menkes disease patients may be responsible for aberrant cadherin transition and impaired neuronal differentiation during early developmental stage.