共表达磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧激酶和烟酸转磷酸核糖激酶提高重组大肠杆菌发酵木糖产丁二酸

野生型E.coli K12能够在厌氧条件下代谢木糖生长,但是丁二酸不是其主要的代谢终产物。而在E.coli BA203(Δldh A,Δpfl B,Δppc)中,通过过量表达磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧化激酶(PCK),即E.coli BA204,使其能够在厌氧条件下利用木糖发酵生产丁二酸。为了进一步提高生物量及丁二酸的产量,通过过量表达烟酸转磷酸核糖激酶(NAPRTase)提高NAD(H)的生成,从而提高木糖代谢速率。因此采用2种方法构建了共表达烟酸转磷酸核糖激酶和磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸羧化激酶的基因工程菌,即E.coli BA208(BA203/p Trc99a-pnc B-pck)和E.coli BA209(BA203/p Trc99a-pck-trc-pnc B)。通过实验发现:厌氧发酵72 h,BA209消耗16.7 g/L木糖,生成15.8 g/L丁二酸,乙酸含量有所降低,而丙酮酸的量几乎不变。BA209中NAD(H)总量和ATP含量较BA208和BA204都有明显的提高。这为考察NAD(H)和ATP 2种辅因子对重组大肠杆菌利用木糖合成丁二酸的影响提供了研究平台。     

过量表达苹果酸酶对E.coli FMJ39厌氧混合酸发酵的影响

为了考察苹果酸酶对厌氧混合酸发酵影响,从E.coli DH5α中PCR扩增苹果酸酶（NAD+-dependent, E.C1.1.1.38）基因sfcA,插入质粒pTrc99a构建了表达质粒pTrc99a-sfcA,有氧和厌氧的条件下,IPTG诱导在E.coli FMJ39（ldh,pfl）中均获得大量表达,从而构建和加强了一条在厌氧混合酸发酵中微弱的代谢途径。厌氧发酵结果表明,过量表达苹果酸酶会影响混合酸发酵中甲酸、乙酸、丁二酸途径。重组FMJ39甲酸和乙酸的量分别比FMJ39提高了17.58%和15.27%,丁二酸的量降低了26.87%,柠檬酸的量变化不大。证实即使pfl基因缺陷,高浓度的L-Thr和L-Ser也会诱导Tdc 操纵元把丙酮酸转化为甲酸和乙酸。实验结果为进一步改造和利用FMJ39奠定了基础。     

产L-苹果酸重组大肠杆菌的构建

基于产琥珀酸重组大肠杆菌E.coli B0013-1050的琥珀酸合成途径,利用Red同源重组技术结合Xer/dif重组系统敲除富马酸酶基因fumB、fumC,苹果酸酶基因maeB,构建L-苹果酸合成途径,最终得到重组大肠杆菌E.coli2030,该菌株在15 L发酵罐中,产L-苹果酸12.5 g/L,葡萄糖-苹果酸转化率为52.1%,同时对发酵产物中主要杂酸丙酮酸和琥珀酸的生产原因进行了初步的探讨与分析。为进一步提高L-苹果酸的转化率,整合表达来源于黄曲霉的苹果酸脱氢酶基因,构建重组菌E.coli 2040,在15 L发酵罐中产L-苹果酸14 g/L,葡萄糖-苹果酸转化率提高到60.3%。     

烟酸转磷酸核糖激酶和丙酮酸羧化酶共表达对大肠杆菌BA002产丁二酸的影响

大肠杆菌BA002是敲除了乳酸脱氢酶的编码基因 (ldhA) 和丙酮酸-甲酸裂解酶的编码基因 (pflB) 的工程菌。厌氧条件下NADH不能及时再生为NAD+,引起胞内辅酶NAD(H)的不平衡,最终导致厌氧条件下菌株不能利用葡萄糖生长代谢。pncB是烟酸转磷酸核糖激酶 (NAPRTase) 的编码基因,通过过量表达pncB基因能够提高NAD(H)总量与维持合适的NADH/NAD+,从而恢复了厌氧条件下重组菌E. coli BA014 (BA002/pTrc99a-pncB) 的生长和产丁二酸的性能。然而,BA014在厌氧发酵过程中有大量丙酮酸积累,为进一步提高菌株的丁二酸生产能力,减少副产物丙酮酸的生成,共表达NAPRTase和来自于乳酸乳球菌 NZ9000中丙酮酸羧化酶 (PYC) 的编码基因pyc,构建了重组菌E. coli BA016 (BA002/pTrc99a-pncB-pyc)。3 L发酵罐结果表明,BA016发酵112 h后,共消耗了35.00 g/L的葡萄糖。发酵结束时,菌体OD600为4.64,产生了25.09 g/L丁二酸。通过共表达pncB和pyc基因,使BA016的丙酮酸积累进一步降低,丁二酸产量进一步提高。     

产丁二酸谷氨酸棒状杆菌基因缺失代谢工程菌株的构建

【目的】提高谷氨酸棒状杆菌(Corynebacterium glutamicum)ATCC13032厌氧条件下的丁二酸产量,并降低发酵产物中副产物的含量。【方法】以谷氨酸棒状杆菌(Corynebacterium glutamicum)ATCC13032为出发菌,首先敲除乳酸形成的关键酶乳酸脱氢酶基因(ldh),构建ldh缺失株谷氨酸棒状杆菌ATCC13032Δldh;然后以缺失株谷氨酸棒状杆菌ATCC13032Δldh为出发菌,敲除该菌的丙酮酸脱氢酶系的E1p酶基因(aceE),构建一株双缺失突变菌株谷氨酸棒状杆菌ATCC13032ΔldhΔaceE。【结果】与供试菌比较,谷氨酸棒状杆菌ATCC13032Δldh的丁二酸产量和转化率分别提高了94.9%和32%,并且主要的副产物乳酸产量由出发菌产量的63.5 g/L降低到很微量的程度。丙酮酸脱氢酶的失活并不能完全消除副产物乙酸的形成,但乙酸的产量较ATCC13032Δldh降低了37.9%,丁二酸的产量略有提高。【结论】该重组菌具有较强的丁二酸生产工业化潜力,并且该研究方法为微生物代谢育种提供参考。     

过量表达异柠檬酸裂解酶对ldh-1谷氨酸棒状杆菌产丁二酸的影响

谷氨酸棒状杆菌SA001是缺失了乳酸脱氢酶基因 (ldhA) 的菌株。为了增加厌氧条件下经异柠檬酸到丁二酸的代谢通量,以提高丁二酸的产量。将来自大肠杆菌Escherichia coli K12的异柠檬酸裂解酶基因导入谷氨酸棒状杆菌SA001 (SA001/pXMJ19-aceA) 中。该菌经0.8 mmol/L的IPTG有氧诱导12 h后,转入厌氧发酵16 h,丁二酸的产量为10.38 g/L,丁二酸的生产强度为0.83 g/(L·h)。与出发菌株比较,异柠檬酸裂解酶的酶活提高了5.8倍,丁二酸的产量提高了48%。结果表明过量表达异柠檬酸裂解酶可以增加由乙醛酸途径流向丁二酸的代谢流。     

产丁二酸工程菌的构建及其厌氧发酵

为了考察过量表达苹果酸酶对于E.coli NZN111(ldhA::Kan pfl::Cam)厌氧发酵产丁二酸的影响, 将连接有苹果酸酶基因sfcA的表达载体pTrc99a-sfcA转化进NZN111中, 构建了重组NZN111(pTrc99a-sfcA)。0.5 mmol/L IPTG诱导8 h后, 测定的苹果酸酶比酶活为30.67 u/mg, 比受体菌提高了140倍。采用两阶段发酵模式, 结果表明: 过量表达的苹果酸酶在NZN111体内催化了从丙酮酸到苹果酸的逆向反应, 丁二酸是发酵过程中积累的主要有机酸, 且当加入0.7 mmol/L IPTG诱导, 初始葡萄糖糖浓度为18.5 g/L时, 选择对数生长期后期的菌种以10%的接种量转入厌氧发酵, 发酵结束时发酵液中丁二酸的浓度为12.84 g/L, 对葡萄糖的收率为69.43%, 乙酸为0.58 g/L, 二者浓度比为22:1, 没有检测到甲酸和乳酸。构建的菌种具有高产丁二酸和副产物极少的优点, 在同类菌种中处于先进水平。     

代谢工程改造大肠杆菌合成丁二酸及发酵罐放大工艺

【背景】Escherichia coli AFP111发酵生产丁二酸时大量副产乙酸,丁二酸得率低。【目的】代谢工程改造EscherichiacoliAFP111,提高丁二酸得率,降低副产物乙酸的生成,建立100 L规模的丁二酸发酵工艺。【方法】一步同源重组敲除乙酸合成途径关键酶基因,改造丁二酸合成途径关键酶启动子实现过表达;单因素优化5L发酵罐培养条件。【结果】敲除乙酸产生途径编码乙酸激酶和磷酸转乙酰酶的基因ackA-pta、苏氨酸脱羧酶和2-酮丁酸甲酸裂解酶的基因tdcDE获得SX02菌株,摇瓶发酵条件下其乙酸产量下降了53.42%,丁二酸得率提高9.85%。在SX02菌株基础上,经启动子改造过表达编码葡萄糖激酶的基因glk后获得菌株SX03,其Glk酶活性提高3.66倍,乙酸产量下降了31.62%,丁二酸得率提高8.28%。SX03菌株发酵生产丁二酸在5 L发酵罐进行放大,其乙酸产量为3.97 g/L,丁二酸得率为1.62 mol/mol葡萄糖,相比出发菌株的乙酸产量下降了75.76%,丁二酸得率提高19.12%。在5L发酵罐上对比研究了中和剂Na2CO3和NaOH混合液替换碱式MgCO3的发酵效果,并优化了发酵pH、搅拌转速和葡萄糖浓度,获得如下最适发酵条件:pH6.8,搅拌转速250r/min,葡萄糖100g/L,发酵结束时乙酸产量为2.24 g/L,丁二酸得率为1.66 mol/mol葡萄糖。中和剂替换优化后乙酸产量下降了20.65%,丁二酸得率提高2.47%。菌株SX03发酵工艺进一步在100 L发酵罐上实现放大,其乙酸产量为1.91 g/L,丁二酸得率为1.30 mol/mol葡萄糖。【结论】通过代谢工程改造的大肠杆菌,其副产物乙酸含量显著下降,丁二酸得率提高,并在5 L和100 L发酵罐上实现了工艺放大,展现出较大的工业化利用潜力。     

重组大肠杆菌利用蔗糖及糖蜜发酵生产丁二酸

富含蔗糖的甘蔗糖蜜可作为制备丁二酸的廉价原料。然而生产丁二酸的潜力菌株大肠杆菌Escherichia coli AFP111不能代谢蔗糖。为了使其具有蔗糖代谢能力,将E.coli W中非PTS蔗糖利用系统蔗糖通透酶的编码基因csc B,果糖激酶的编码基因csc K和蔗糖水解酶的编码基因csc A克隆并表达到AFP111中,获得重组菌株AFP111/p MD19T-csc BKA。经厌氧发酵验证,重组菌株72 h消耗20 g/L蔗糖,丁二酸产量达到12 g/L。在3L发酵罐中采用有氧阶段培养菌体、厌氧阶段发酵的两阶段发酵方式,厌氧发酵30 h,重组菌株以蔗糖和糖蜜为碳源丁二酸产量分别为34 g/L和30 g/L。结果表明,通过外源引入非PTS蔗糖利用系统,重组菌株具有较强的代谢蔗糖生长及合成丁二酸的能力,并且能够利用廉价糖蜜发酵制备丁二酸。     

大肠杆菌AFP111利用玉米粉全水解液厌氧发酵合成丁二酸

利用双酶法制得的玉米粉糖液及制糖过程中玉米糖渣酶解后含氮水解液作为发酵培养基,考察在不添加其他营养物质条件下大肠杆菌(E.coli)AFP111专一厌氧发酵产丁二酸的可能性。结果表明:E.coli AFP111厌氧发酵48 h后,丁二酸质量浓度达到15.24 g/L,丁二酸的得率为0.76 g/g。与在LB培养基中发酵相比,产量提高了14.41%。对关键酶酶活和辅因子NAD(H)含量的测定结果显示,能利用玉米粉全水解液的苹果酸脱氢酶(MDH)、磷酸烯醇式丙酮酸(PEP)羧化酶(PPC)、PEP羧化激酶(PCK)酶活及辅因子NAD(H)含量分别为0.88 U、0.29 U、0.31 U和15.09μmol/g,均比LB培养基中关键酶酶活和辅因子NAD(H)含量高。由此推测,玉米粉全水解液中关键生长因子(D-生物素、VB1和烟酸)的含量影响了关键酶酶活和辅因子NAD(H)的含量,从而影响丁二酸的产量。在5 L罐中厌氧发酵120 h,利用玉米粉全水解液,丁二酸的得率为0.84 g/g,比利用LB培养基发酵得到的丁二酸得率提高了21.74%。     

敲除frdB基因对大肠杆菌厌氧混合酸发酵的影响

以SPUEC101(产琥珀酸)为出发菌,利用RED同源重组技术敲除延胡索酸还原酶基因frdB,得到重组菌株SPUEC103(△frdB),通过减少延胡索酸生成琥珀酸的通量,实现延胡索酸的积累。实验结果表明:敲除frdB基因后,缺陷菌株生长速率降低,利用葡萄糖的能力也有所降低,同时敲除frdB基因较大程度地改变琥珀酸、延胡索酸等的分布,在两阶段发酵中,当发酵培养基中添加30 g/L的葡萄糖时,琥珀酸和延胡索酸得率最高,对比SPUEC101,SPUEC103的琥珀酸产量产率由24.6%下降为15.4%,并有延胡索酸和少量的苹果酸生成,分别为0.182±0.002 g/L和0.023±0.002 g/L,同时丙酮酸和乙酸含量也略有升高,分别由1.87±0.02 g/L、0.012±0.002 g/L上升到2.36±0.03 g/L、0.862±0.012 g/L。     

Mutants of Escherichia coli deficient in the fermentative lactate dehydrogenase.

Mutants of Escherichia coli deficient in the fermentative NAD-linked lactate dehydrogenase (ldh) have been isolated. These mutants showed no growth defects under anaerobic conditions unless present together with a defect in pyruvate formate lyase (pfl). Double mutants (pfl ldh) were unable to grow anaerobically on glucose or other sugars even when supplemented with acetate, whereas pfl mutants can do so. The ldh mutation was found to map at 30.5 min on the E. coli chromosome. The ldh mutant FMJ39 showed no detectable lactate dehydrogenase activity and produced no lactic acid from glucose under anaerobic conditions as estimated by in vivo nuclear magnetic resonance measurements. We also found that in wild-type strains the fermentative lactate dehydrogenase was conjointly induced by anaerobic conditions and an acidic pH. Despite previous findings that phosphate concentrations affect the proportion of lactic acid produced during fermentation, we were unable to find any intrinsic effect of phosphate on lactate dehydrogenase activity, apart from the buffering effect of this ion.     

Anaerobic growth of Escherichia coli on d-tartrate depends on the fumarate carrier DcuB and fumarase, rather than the l-tartrate carrier TtdT and l-tartrate dehydratase

Escherichia coli is able to grow under anaerobic conditions on D: -tartrate when glycerol is supplied as an electron donor (D-tartrate fermentation). D-Tartrate was converted to succinate. Growth was lost in strains deficient for DcuB, the fumarate/succinate antiporter of fumarate respiration. The L-tartrate/succinate antiporter TtdT of L-tartrate fermentation, or the C4-dicarboxylate carriers DcuA and DcuC, were not able to support D-tartrate transport and fermentation. Deletion of fumB demonstrated, that fumarase B is required for growth on D-tartrate. The mutant lost most (about 79%) of D-tartrate dehydratase activity. L-Tartrate dehydratase (TtdAB), and fumarase A or C, showed no or only a small contribution to D-tartrate dehydratase activity. Therefore D-tartrate is metabolised by a sequence of reactions analogous to that from L-tartrate fermentation, including dehydration to oxaloacetate, which is then converted to malate, fumarate and succinate. The stereoisomer specific carrier TtdT and dehydratase TtdAB of L-tartrate fermentation are substituted by enzymes from general anaerobic fumarate metabolism, the antiporter DcuB and fumarase B, which have a broader substrate specificity. No D-tartrate specific carriers and enzymes are involved in the pathway.     

Improved conversion of fumarate to succinate by Escherichia coli strains amplified for fumarate reductase

Two recombinant plasmid Escherichia coli strains containing amplified fumarate reductase activity converted fumarate to succinate at significantly higher rates and yields than a wild-type E. coli strain. Glucose was required for the conversion of fumarate to succinate, and in the absence of glucose or in cultures with a low cell density, malate accumulated. Two-dimensional gel electrophoretic analysis of proteins from the recombinant DNA and wild-type strains showed that increased quantities of both large and small fumarate reductase subunits were expressed in the recombinant DNA strains.     

Improved conversion of fumarate to succinate by Escherichia coli strains amplified for fumarate reductase.

Two recombinant plasmid Escherichia coli strains containing amplified fumarate reductase activity converted fumarate to succinate at significantly higher rates and yields than a wild-type E. coli strain. Glucose was required for the conversion of fumarate to succinate, and in the absence of glucose or in cultures with a low cell density, malate accumulated. Two-dimensional gel electrophoretic analysis of proteins from the recombinant DNA and wild-type strains showed that increased quantities of both large and small fumarate reductase subunits were expressed in the recombinant DNA strains.     

Combining metabolic engineering and metabolic evolution to develop nonrecombinant strains of Escherichia coli C that produce succinate and malate

Derivatives of Escherichia coli C were engineered to produce primarily succinate or malate in mineral salts media using simple fermentations (anaerobic stirred batch with pH control) without the addition of plasmids or foreign genes. This was done by a combination of gene deletions (genetic engineering) and metabolic evolution with over 2,000 generations of growth-based selection. After deletion of the central anaerobic fermentation genes (ldhA, adhE, ackA), the pathway for malate and succinate production remained as the primary route for the regeneration of NAD+. Under anaerobic conditions, ATP production for growth was obligately coupled to malate dehydrogenase and fumarate reductase by the requirement for NADH oxidation. Selecting strains for improved growth co-selected increased production of these dicarboxylic acids. Additional deletions were introduced as further improvements (focA, pflB, poxB, mgsA). The best succinate biocatalysts, strains KJ060(ldhA, adhE, ackA, focA, pflB) and KJ073(ldhA, adhE, ackA, focA, pflB, mgsA, poxB), produce 622-733 mM of succinate with molar yields of 1.2-1.6 per mole of metabolized glucose. The best malate biocatalyst, strain KJ071(ldhA, adhE, ackA, focA, pflB, mgsA), produced 516 mM malate with molar yields of 1.4 per mole of glucose metabolized.     

Altered fermentative metabolism in Chlamydomonas reinhardtii mutants lacking pyruvate formate lyase and both pyruvate formate lyase and alcohol dehydrogenase

Chlamydomonas reinhardtii, a unicellular green alga, often experiences hypoxic/anoxic soil conditions that activate fermentation metabolism. We isolated three Chlamydomonas mutants disrupted for the pyruvate formate lyase (PFL1) gene; the encoded PFL1 protein catalyzes a major fermentative pathway in wild-type Chlamydomonas cells. When the pfl1 mutants were subjected to dark fermentative conditions, they displayed an increased flux of pyruvate to lactate, elevated pyruvate decarboxylation, ethanol accumulation, diminished pyruvate oxidation by pyruvate ferredoxin oxidoreductase, and lowered H(2) production. The pfl1-1 mutant also accumulated high intracellular levels of lactate, succinate, alanine, malate, and fumarate. To further probe the system, we generated a double mutant (pfl1-1 adh1) that is unable to synthesize both formate and ethanol. This strain, like the pfl1 mutants, secreted lactate, but it also exhibited a significant increase in the levels of extracellular glycerol, acetate, and intracellular reduced sugars and a decrease in dark, fermentative H(2) production. Whereas wild-type Chlamydomonas fermentation primarily produces formate and ethanol, the double mutant reroutes glycolytic carbon to lactate and glycerol. Although the metabolic adjustments observed in the mutants facilitate NADH reoxidation and sustained glycolysis under dark, anoxic conditions, the observed changes could not have been predicted given our current knowledge of the regulation of fermentation metabolism.     

Pyruvate formate lyase and acetate kinase are essential for anaerobic growth of Escherichia coli on xylose

During anaerobic growth of bacteria, organic intermediates of metabolism, such as pyruvate or its derivatives, serve as electron acceptors to maintain the overall redox balance. Under these conditions, the ATP needed for cell growth is derived from substrate-level phosphorylation. In Escherichia coli, conversion of glucose to pyruvate yields 2 net ATPs, while metabolism of a pentose, such as xylose, to pyruvate only yields 0.67 net ATP per xylose due to the need for one (each) ATP for xylose transport and xylulose phosphorylation. During fermentative growth, E. coli produces equimolar amounts of acetate and ethanol from two pyruvates, and these reactions generate one additional ATP from two pyruvates (one hexose equivalent) while still maintaining the overall redox balance. Conversion of xylose to acetate and ethanol increases the net ATP yield from 0.67 to 1.5 per xylose. An E. coli pfl mutant lacking pyruvate formate lyase cannot convert pyruvate to acetyl coenzyme A, the required precursor for acetate and ethanol production, and could not produce this additional ATP. E. coli pfl mutants failed to grow under anaerobic conditions in xylose minimal medium without any negative effect on their survival or aerobic growth. An ackA mutant, lacking the ability to generate ATP from acetyl phosphate, also failed to grow in xylose minimal medium under anaerobic conditions, confirming the need for the ATP produced by acetate kinase for anaerobic growth on xylose. Since arabinose transport by AraE, the low-affinity, high-capacity, arabinose/H+ symport, conserves the ATP expended in pentose transport by the ABC transporter, both pfl and ackA mutants grew anaerobically with arabinose. AraE-based xylose transport, achieved after constitutively expressing araE, also supported the growth of the pfl mutant in xylose minimal medium. These results suggest that a net ATP yield of 0.67 per pentose is only enough to provide for maintenance energy but not enough to support growth of E. coli in minimal medium. Thus, pyruvate formate lyase and acetate kinase are essential for anaerobic growth of E. coli on xylose due to energetic constraints.