Duetting: A Daily Routine of Laniarius funebris,the Slate-coloured Boubou (Aves,Laniidae)

This is a review of mustelid spacing patterns. The Mustelinae appear to have intrasexual territories where ♂♂ are territorial against ♂♂, ♀♀ against ♀♀, but there is extensive territory overlap between sexes. Mustelids of other subfamilies appear to have variations on this theme; usually female territories are replaced by territories of family groups of one adult ♀ and her most recent offspring. Sea otters and European badgers do not appear to fit into these organizational schemes. There is a strong correlation between degree of intrasexual territoriality, sexual dimorphism in body size, degree of body elongation and degree of carnivory. It is suggested that energy requirements of individuals may tie these correlations together.     

The Effects of Juvenile Social Interaction on Growth Rate,Size and Age at Maturity,and Adult Social Behavior in Girardinus metallicus Poey (Pisces: Poeciliidae)

The aim of the following experiments is to identify and to deseribe those factors most probably important in determining reproductive success in male Girardinus metallicus and to investigate how competition among juveniles affects these characters. The quantitative relationships among male size, male aggressiveness, and male sexual activity are examined. Small ♂♂ are either more aggressive or less affected by aggression than large ♂♂, and they tend to exhibit higher sexual vigor. ♂♂ which are subordinate to other individuals as juveniles mature later at a larger size and tend to be less sexually active than ♂♂ dominant as juveniles. Juvenile ♂♂ are more aggressive than juvenile ♀♀. The results are discussed in terms of the ecology of the species, and interspecific comparisons are made.     

The Lek-like Mating System of Halichoeres melanochir (Pisces: Labridae) at Miyake-jima,Japan1

Reproductive behavior and social organization of the labrid fish Halichoeres melanochir were studied at Miyake-jima, Izu Islands, Japan. ♂♂ set up contiguous territories from early to mid-afternoon daily during the breeding season, with ♂♂ at the center of the spawning site experiencing significantly higher spawning success than those at the periphery. Unlike other labrids with lek-like mating systems previously reported, H. melanochir is sexually monochromatic and shows only minimal sexual size-dimorphism. The spawning behavior and mating system are described and compared with current theories on labrid reproductive strategies.     

Urine Marking and Territoriality in Galago alleni (Waterhouse, 1837 — Lorisoidea,Primates) — A Field Study by Radio-telemetry

Behavioral interactions among color-marked individual Vidua chalybeata that shared common song dialects were observed for 5 years in two populations at Lochinvar National Park, Zambia. Social interactions involved ♂♂ visiting and competing for mating sites and ♀♀ visiting ♂♂ in an apparent sampling of potential copulating partners. Differences in mating success among the polygynous ♂♂ were compared with male behavior and territory resources, and criteria were developed to test the importance of intrasexual male competition and female mate choice in explaining the mating system of the populations. Song behavior best explained differences in mating success of ♂♂ with lesser effects of neighboring ♂♂ and the defensible resources around the call-sites. The social organization of song populations resembles that of a dispersed lek with ♀♀ visiting many ♂♂ but mating with few ♂♂. We discuss the observations on indigobirds in relation to behavioral selection, sexual selection, and mating systems. Mating systems of certain populations and species are compared using statistics of individual mating success.     

An Ethometric Analysis of Agonistic Behavior and Social Hierarchies in the Cockroach,Eublaberus posticus

Agonistic behavior between adult ♂♂ of the tropical cockroach Eublaberus posticus was studied. Observations were made under red light (590–640 nm) during the dark phase of a 12: 12 DL cycle, and recorded on a dictation instrument. Agonistic behavior appears to be causally related to territoriality. Social hierarchies are established and maintained by agonistic behavior. The application of information theory to the data shows that more information is transferred from the responder (eventual loser) to the initiator (eventual winner) of an agonistic encounter than from the initiator to the responder. A measure of information called normalized transmission is calculated which can be used to compare different species.     

Male Territoriality in the Bumblebee Wolf,Philanthus bicinctus (Mickel) (Hymenoptera,Sphecidae): Observations on the Behaviour of Individual ♂♂

Observations were made on the behaviour of male Philanthus bicinctus (Mickel) which defend territories around the nesting burrows of ♀♀. ♂♂ were individually identified with small number tags and focal-animal samples were taken of the behaviour of these ♂♂. Intense interactions were observed between territorial ♂♂ and 1) conspecifics and 2) intruding insects which resembled conspecifics. Evidence is presented which suggests that ♂♂ scent mark their territories.     

The Behaviour of the Mediterranean Tripterygion Species (Pisces,Blennioidei)

The behaviour of the three mediterranean benthic fish Tripterygion tripteronotus, T. xanthosoma, and T. melanurus is described from observations in the field and observations on captive animals. The ♂♂ defend a territory only during the reproductive season; ♀♀ do not defend a territory. At the height of the breeding season, a male T. tripteronotus on average spawns with four ♀♀ Per day. The ♂ defends the territory against egg predators and cleans the eggs. ♀♀ spawn repeatedly during a spawning season. A spawning pair of T. tripteronotus frequently attracts conspecifics. The majority of these “satellites” are small, sexually mature ♂♂, which do not own a territory themselves. The reproductive strategies of the two types of ♂♂ (territorial ♂♂ and satellite ♂♂) and of the ♀♀ are discussed. On the basis of ethological, morphological, and palaegeographic data the evolution of the eastern-atlantic and mediterranean Tripterygiidae is reconstructed. A bibliography of the literature on eastern-atlantic and mediterranean Tripterygiidae is given. As in their morphology and anatomy, benthic fish show convergent adaptations in their behaviour. Some of these are pointed out and discussed.     

Freiwasserbeobachtungen an Tilapien (Pisces,Cichlidae) in Ostafrika

T. grahami ♂♂ haben in Kolonien dicht beieinander liegende Reviere; sie beziehen sie frühmorgens bei völliger Dunkelheit und verlassen sie am späten Nachmittag wieder. Einige daraufhin beobachtete ♂♂ waren immer in der gleichen Grube zu finden. Es wird angenommen, daß dies generell gilt. Kämpfe sind äußerst selten. Revier-♂♂ kämpfen durchschnittlich nur etwa 2mal pro Woche. Revierlose ♂♂ rufen öfter Kämpfe hervor, und da Kämpfe auch nachts zu bemerken sind, ist eine teilweise Unabhängigkeit des Kämpfens vom Revierverhalten zu folgern. Ersatzhandlungen fürs Kämpfen sind das Graben und das Vertreiben von Jungfischen. Es wird angenommen, daß diese Handlungen wegen der beengten Lebensbedingungen einen positiven Selektionswert haben. Aus den gleichen Gründen sind wohl Balzhandlungen reduziert, die Laichdauer auf eine Sekunde zusammengeschrumpft und Jungfische früher als in jeder anderen Cichlidenart geschlechtsreif. Diese Frühreife hat bei T. alcalica zu einem Kampfgleichgewicht zwischen sehr unterschiedlich großen ♂♂ geführt. Sonst zeigt die Art keine Unterschiede im Verhalten zu T. grahami. Bei den Geißeltilapien T. variabilis und T. rukwaensis kann die Reviergröße in sehr weiten Grenzen schwanken. In großen Revieren schwimmen die ♂♂ viel an ihren Reviergrenzen entlang, ihr Gebiet auf diese Weise gegen Reviernachbarn markierend und auf ♀♀ hin kontrollierend. In kleinen Revieren bietet sich mehr ein Bild wie bei den Sodatilapien T. grahami und T. alcalica. Aus dem Vergleich der Gruben, der Balz und des Laichens von Soda- und Geißeltilapien lassen sich verwandtschaftliche Beziehungen zwischen beiden Gruppen erschließen. Es werden also vor allem Revierverhaltensweisen in ihrer Anpassung an wechselnde Umweltbedingungen beschrieben und Balzhandlungen zur Klärung verwandtschaftlicher Beziehungen verwandt.     

Sexual Behaviour in the Slave-making Ant,Harpagoxenus canadensis M. R. Smith,and Sexual Pheromone Experiments with H. canadensis,H. americanus (Emery), and H. sublaevis (Nylander) (Hymenoptera; Formicidae)

The sexual behaviour of Harpagoxenus canadensis closely resembles that of European H. sublaevis. Young ♀♀ of both species exhibit a sexual-calling behaviour (Locksterzeln) during which they attract the ♂♂ by poison gland secretion. The sexual pheromones of both species seem to be identical, but interspecific mating is prevented by various behavioural mechanisms of the ♀♀. A third species, H. americanus, seems to be less closely related to H. canadensis and H. sublaevis: Its ♂♂ are not sensitive to the pheromones of these two species.     

Structure of multi-species ant assemblages (Hymenoptera,Formicidae) in the Mountain Crimea

The multi-species ant assemblages were studied in the Crimea Mountains, in 9 types of plant associations in the plateau pastures as well as on the southern and northern slopes of the Main Range. A list of 18 ant species with data on their distribution in biotopes and also layers and the structure of their foraging territories is given. The hierarchical organization of multi-species ant assemblages and different strategies of nest location of the influents depending on the dominant species and its territoriality were investigated. Territoriality of each dominant species was determined by the frequency of foraging areas without nests of other species. Depending on dominant territoriality and the number of dominant species, the following classification of multi-species assemblages is proposed. (1) Monodominant assemblages with weakly expressed territoriality of the dominant species. Low density of the workers of Camponotus aethiops in the foraging territory determines weak interactions with influent species. The settling pattern of the influents shows no evident dependence on the dominant. Weakly expressed territoriality of the dominant allows non-territorial species to exist on the dominant’s territory. Such species were not found in other types of ant assemblages. (2) Monodominant assemblages with strongly expressed territoriality of the dominant species. The settling pattern of the influents shows the subordinate species to avoid those of higher ranks in the hierarchy, thus decreasing the probability of conflicts. The influents settle in the neutral zones as well as in the foraging territory of the dominant, so as to reduce competition with the subdominant species Formica cunicularia. Such a strategy reduces the probability of interspecific conflicts in biotopes with fewer vegetation layers than in the forests. (3) Bidominant assemblages with a variable dendrobiont dominant are typical among forest assemblages. Coexistence of two dominant species is possible when foraging of one of them is completely or partly restricted to one vegetation layer. The subdominant species avoid settling in the foraging territory of the dominant that occupies the same layer. When the dendrobiont dominant Crematogaster schmidti drops out of the assemblage, it (and its role in the assemblage) is replaced by other dendrobiont species Lasius emarginatus which otherwise acts as the 1st order subdominant in C. schmidti assemblages. (4) Polydominant assemblages are characterized by the presence of as many as 3 dominant species, namely Crematogaster schmidti, Camponotus aethiops, and Plagiolepis tauricus. The coexistence of the dominants is possible due to use of different layers (one species is a dendrobiont, the other two are herpeto-hortobionts), different activity periods (round-the-clock in Crematogaster schmidti, night in Camponotus aethiops, and daytime in P. tauricus), and different size classes of the workers (3rd, 5th, and 1st, respectively). The different size classes of workers reduce competition for food. Thus, when the number of dominant species in the assemblage increases, so does the number of mechanisms facilitating their coexistence.     

On the Fighting Behaviour of Nannacara anomala (Pisces,Cichlidae) ♂♂

We present a quantitative analysis of the fighting behaviour of Nannacara anomala ♂♂ in a situation where asymmetries in size, dominance-relations and residency are as far as possible under control. Differences in the frequency distribution of individual behaviour patterns over time and differences in the reaction pattern towards acts from the other fish were analysed. Special emphasis was laid on whether the eventual winner or loser of the fight differed in these respects and the results are discussed in terms of the fighting tactics utilized.     

Sexual Discrimination Using Visual Cues in the Checkered White Butterfly (Pieris protodice)

The cues used by ♂♂ and ♀♀ of the checkered white butterfly, Pieris protodice, were explored using an assay that involved timing the responses of free-flying butterflies to tethered animals (“angling”). The models included ones that were made from the wings of ♂♂ and ♀♀ that had been extracted in a dilute ammonia solution. This procedure removes an ultraviolet-absorbing pigment from the wings and renders them more ultraviolet reflectant than normal without altering any other aspect of their coloration. The results show that both sexes make sexual discriminations using the sexual dimorphism in ultraviolet reflectance found in this species rather than using differences in the melanic markings on the wings, movement patterns, or chemical signals.     

Mating Behavior in Halictine Bees (Hymenoptera: Halictidae)

Studied two types of mate-orientation behavior in ♂♂ of the sweat bee, Lasioglossum rohweri: microterritoriality and patrolling. Observations were made in both the laboratory and the field. These ♂♂ behave uniquely for Hymenoptera in that 2–5 of them establish microterritories immediately around the same nest entrance. Some ♂♂ are exclusively patrollers, flying about flowers and nest sites. Rendezvous places (locations where animals are likely to find mates) in bees are: flowers, nesting sites, vegetative parts of plants, nest entrances, air, and nests. Territoriality in male bees may have arisen independently in 7 of the 9 families of bees.     

Territorial Behavior and Ecology of the Anemonefish Amphiprion melanopus on Guam1)

Field observations and experiments on the Indo-Pacific anemonefish Amphiprion melanopus at Guam show that it colonizes the aggregating sea anemone Physobrachia douglasi extensively and nearly exclusively. There are an average of four fish per colony. The total standard length of anemonefish at each aggregation is highly correlated with the total area covered by resident anemones, suggesting both a carrying capacity and some form of social control of growth of anemonefish²). Inter-colony migration of juveniles, as well as larval recruitment, may contribute to maintenance of the optimum colony size. Adults do not migrate. Both juveniles and adults defend territory. Juvenile territories are mutually exclusive areas within the confines of the anemone aggregation, while adult territories are considerably larger than the area covered by the anemone aggregation. Though territories of mated ♀♀ and ♂♂ overlap completely, female emphasis is peripheral relative to the ♂. Adult conspecific intruders are attacked more heavily and at greater distances than are juveniles. Intraspecific territoriality in juveniles probably reflects the limited availability of critical habitat. In adults it may function to protect the pair bond. Interspecific aggression is less intense and appears to protect both the spawn and host anemones from various predators.     

Vergleichende Verhaltensstudien zum Paarungsschwarm der Hummeln (Bombus) und Schmarotzerhummeln (Psithyrus) I. Teil*

• 1 Die ♂♂ von Bombus lucorum legen die höchsten und verborgensten der bei Hummeln bisher bekannten Schwarmbahnen an.
• 2 Nach diesen in der Blütezeit des lucorum-Staates angelegten Höhenbahnen werden Tiefenbahnen an Blüten und Kräutern bis zum Ende der Vegetationsperiode beflogen. Man kann also bei lucorum-♂♂ von einem Saison-Dimorphismus des Schwärmens sprechen.
• 3 Bei terrestris-♂♂ gibt es 3 Bahntypen, nämlich Tiefenbahnen an Kräutern, Gebüschbahnen und Höhenbahnen an Bäumen. Die bisher unbekannten Gebüsch- und Höhenbahnen werden beschrieben.
• 4 Die Schwarmbahnen von terrestris-♂♂ in hochalpinem Gelände unterscheiden sich in mehrfacher Hinsicht von denen im Tal: a) Sie sind aus-gedehnter und die Duftpunkte liegen in alien möglichen Höhen (zwischen 0,50 m und über 30 m). b) Dem täglichen Schwarmflug gehen ungezielte Erkundungsflüge voraus. c) Die Duftlegungen sind zahlreicher und verteilen sich über den ganzen Vormittag. Es werden häufig nur Teilstrecken mit Duft belegt. Die Punkte ergänzen sich aber, so daß schließlich die ganze Bahn frisch beduftet ist.
• 5 Die Duftpunkte der terrestris-♂♂ liegen nicht beliebig urn den ganzen Baum herum, sondern in bestimmten Sektoren. Das ♂ befliegt von unten nach oben Äste, die im Süd-Ost-Sektor liegen.
• 6 Der Bahnflug beginnt, wenn der angeflogene Sektor am Baum in voller Sonne (oder bei bedecktem Himmel in vollem Licht) liegt. Der Schwarmflug endet, wenn der Schatten in den Flugsektor eintritt, z. B. im August auf gut 2200 m Höhe gegen 13.30 Uhr, so auch bei schönstem Wetter.
• 7 Der Schwarmflug der Gartenhummeln ist sehr wetterabhängig. Vom Beginn der Schwarmzeit (Ende Juni) bis zum Ende (September) verschiebt sich schrittweise der Termin für die 1. Duftlegung um etwa 90 Min. gegen Mittag, für das Flugende um etwa 1 Std. Das Anlegen einer gerichteten Duftspirale wird beschrieben.
• 8 Entfühlerte hortorum-♂♂ versuchen ihre Bahnpunkte dauernd mit Duftspuren zu belegen. Aus ihrem alten Schwarmgebiet verpflanzte entfühlerte ♂♂ finden keinen Anschluß mehr an ein im neuen Gebiet vorhandenes Bahnen-Netz und legen eine kleine Futterplatzbahn an, wie sie solitären Apiden eigentümlich ist.
• 9 Das Schwarmverhalten von B. variabilis in alpiner Situation wird beschrieben. Auf die Bedeutung des Flugniveaus wird zum erstenmal aufmerksam gemacht.
• 10 Die zu den Gartenhummeln (Hortobombus Vogt 1911) gehörige alpine B. gerstaeckeri M. legt im Gegensatz zu B. hortorum L. Gebüschbahnen an.

     

Morphometric and DNA investigations into European water frogs (Rana kl. esculenta Synklepton (Anura, Ranidae)) from different population systems

The population specific variability of diploid and triploid R. kl. esculenta individuals was investigated by means of morphometric methods (canonical discriminant analysis, UPGMA cluster analysis) and DNA fingerprinting. As a result of the morphometric investigations, as well as of the DNA investigations, a clear separation of single populations was possible. However, no correlations between the morphometry and different population systems could be recognized. Clear morphometric differences could be seen between diploid ♀♀ and ♂♂ and triploid ♀♀ on the one hand, and triploid ♂♂ on the other. While the diploid ♀♀ and ♂♂ and the triploid ♀♀ were located in the intermediate area between the parental species R. lessonae and R. ridibunda according to their morphometric parameters, the triploid ♂♂ showed a great overlap with R. lessonae. Up to now, this phenomenon has not been explained. The first results of the DNA investigations provided further hints at the high inter-individual and population-specific variability of R. kl. esculenta. R. kl. esculenta individuals of the R. lessonae/esculenta population Toter See could be distinguished from conspecific individuals of the R. ridibunda/esculenta-♀♀ population Alte Oder according to their fingerprint patterns. Moreover, in the R. lessonae / esculenta population, the fingerprints or the diploid R. kl. esculenta-♀♀ and the investigated R. lessonae-♀ were very similar. Furthermore, in this population, many R. kl. esculenta genotypes resemble R. lessonae in their morphometric features. This finding suggests the occurrence of recombination in R. kl. esculenta. In general, every population seems to have its own genetic background. A classification of water-frog populations according to population systems is only possible under certain conditions.     

Behavior of Elk (Cervus canadensis) during the Rut

Während zweier Monate (1965) wurden im Banff National Park (Kanada) qualitative und quantitative Daten über das Brunftverhalten des amerikanischen Wapiti (Cervus canadensis) gesammelt. Einige Verhaltensweisen sind erstmals genauer beschneben. Die ♀♀-Gruppen sowie die Zahl der mit ihnen lebenden Spießer und 21/2- und 31/2 jähngen ♂♂ wurden zu Beginn der Brunft kleiner, an ihrem Ende wieder größer. Das Zahlenverhältnis von ♀♀ und Kälbern blieb dabei gleich. Spießer blieben länger als ältere ♂♂ in den ♀♀-Gruppen und schlossen sich ihnen früher wieder an. Bei Brunftbeginn traten die über 31/2Jährigen ♂♂ zu den ♀♀-Gruppen, spalteten sie und vertrieben jüngere ♂♂. Sonogramme erläutern genauere Angaben über das Röhren und den Alarmruf, der bei ♂♂ höher ist als bei ♀♀. Durch Röhren, Geweihschlagen am Gesträuch, Graben und Suhlen scheinen andere ♂♂ aufmerksam und angelockt zu werden. Das führt zu Zweikämpfen und fördert die geschlechtliche Auslese. ♂♂ ab 31/2 Jahren können ejakulieren beim Röhren, Geweihschlagen, Graben, Stehen in der Suhle, nach dem Zusammentreiben von ♀♀ und beim Alarmrufen. Heftige Kämpfe waren selten, nur einmal kam es zu Schlägen auf den Körper. Kampfwunden scheinen unwesentlich als Todesursache. ♂♂ kämpfen bevorzugt mit Altersgenossen, ältere kämpfen mehr als junge, alle zu bestimmten Tages- und Jahreszeiten mehr als sonst. Reviere scheint es nicht zu geben. Harem-♂♂ treiben zu bestimmten Tages- und Jahreszeiten besonders häufig ♂♀ mit Kälbern zusammen. Mehr als 31/2 Jahre alte ♂♂ bestritten 94 % der heterosexuellen Kontakte, die ebenfalls tages- und jahreszeitlich verschieden häufig waren. Harem-♂♂ vertrieben am häufigsten über 31/2jährige ♂♂, selten Spießer, am seltensten 21/2jährige ♂♂. Wenn es beim Drohen blieb, war immer der Angreifer gleich alt oder älter als sein Gegner; die Häufigkeit solcher nicht zur Berührung führenden aggressiven Begegnungen änderte sich mit der Tageszeit. ♀♀-Gruppen werden offenbar von adulten ♀♀, nicht von jungen ♂♂ ?geführt”. Über 31/2jährige ♂♂ verbrauchen wohl in der Brunft Energiereserven, denn sie fressen weniger lange und sind mehr mit Laufen und anderen Bewegungen beschäftigt als jüngere ♂♂.     

The Ethology and Sociology of the Dwarf Mongoose (Helogale undulata rufula)

Sexual imprinting is a well-known phenomenon in the ♂♂ of many bird species, but its occurrence in ♀♀, particularly of dimorphic species, has been questioned. ♀♀ of the Zebra Finch, Taeniopygia guttata, that had been cross-fostered by Bengalese Finches, Lonchura striata, were tested for their preferences in two different choice tests involving ♂♂ of both species. A highly significant preference for the imprinted species was found.     

The Social System of Feral Asses (Equus asinus)

Feral asses (Equus asinus) were studied in a desert range in southeastern California, USA. They formed small, highly unstable groups of varied sex and age composition. Older ♂♂ tended to be solitary and some were seasonally territorial. Home ranges of marked individuals overlapped and averaged 32 km². The territory of a marked ♂ occupied 0.5 km². The social and spatial organizations of the study population are compared with other feral ass populations and with other equid species. Loose social organization is viewed as well-adapted to the low carrying capacity of deserts, and the territorial system similarly adaptive when precipitation is periodic.