Estimation of iron requirements for women by numerical analysis of population-based data from the National Health and Nutrition Surveys of Japan 2003–2007

Iron requirements were estimated from the results of the National Health and Nutrition Surveys of Japan 2003–2007 using the numerical analysis of requirements based on an integral equation. The numerical analysis used population-based data on iron nutriture, the prevalence of inadequate iron status, and the distribution of iron intakes. The cutoff value for inadequate iron status was defined as a serum ferritin concentration <30 ng/mL. Iron intakes and menstrual blood losses followed a log-normal distribution and published values were corrected accordingly to calculate usual values. For women aged 18–29 years old, the median of the estimated median iron requirement (corresponding to the estimated average requirement by using the terminology of the dietary reference intakes) was 7.59 mg (range, 6.86–8.11). The median of the estimated usual iron intake covering the needs of women with 80 mL per cycle of menstrual blood loss was 11.27 mg (range, 10.16–12.00), and the median of the usual iron intake covering the needs of 97.7% of women was 13.93 mg (range, 12.55–14.81). For women aged 30–49 years old, the corresponding figures were 8.13 mg (range, 7.96–8.69), 11.95 mg (range, 11.72–12.77), and 14.71 mg (range, 14.44–15.72).     

Toddler formula supplemented with docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) improves DHA status and respiratory health in a randomized,double-blind,controlled trial of US children less than 3 years of age

Studies of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake and status in US toddlers are lacking. One national survey found low DHA intakes. The objectives of this double-blind, randomized study were to (a) determine usual DHA intakes, (b) measure the effect of consuming formulas with DHA on red blood cell (RBC) and plasma DHA and (c) record adverse events in US children between 18 and 36 months of age. Children aged 18–36 months were provided 237-ml formula with 0, 43, or 130 mg DHA per day for 60 days. Blood was obtained at 0 and 60 days and 24-hour dietary recalls at 0, 30 and 60 days. Usual median daily DHA intake was 13.3 mg. RBC DHA increased in a dose-dependent manner with increasing DHA intake (p<0.05). Toddlers consuming the formula with 130 mg DHA per day have fewer adverse events (p=0.007) and a lower incidence of respiratory illness (p=0.024), compared to the formula without DHA. US toddlers have low DHA intake and status. Modest increases in DHA intake in toddlers might improve development, including respiratory health.     

Trace element requirements in critically ill burned patients

Critically ill burned patients are characterized by a strong oxidative stress, an intense inflammatory response, and months-long hypermetabolism, all of which are proportional to the severity of injury. Trace element (TE) deficiencies have repeatedly been described. The clinical course is complicated by organ failures, infections, and delayed wound healing, which can be partly attributed to TE deficiencies.Among critically ill patients, TE deficiencies are the most severe in major burns, who suffer a specific copper deficiency. Plasma TE concentrations are low during any critical illness, as a result of TE losses in biological fluids, low intakes, dilution by fluid resuscitation, and redistribution from plasma to tissues mediated by the inflammatory response. The large exudative losses cause negative TE balances. Intravenous supplementation trials show that early substitution improves recovery, reduces infectious complications (particularly nosocomial pneumonia), normalize thyroid function, normalize skin tissue levels, improve wound healing and shorten hospital stay.Nevertheless, prolonged high dose delivery may be deleterious, as TE have potential for toxicity. In major burns, supplements up to 4 mg of Cu/day, 500 mg Se/day and 40 mg Zn/day for 3 weeks have been found to be safe and effective. The intravenous route appears the only way to deliver the doses required to achieve antioxidant and clinical effects. Further research is required to determine the optimal combination and doses for different severities of injury.     

Performance of rabbits on Guinea grass and Verano stylo hays in the dry season and effect of concentrate supplementation

The feasibility of using Verano stylo (Stylosanthes hamata cv. Verano) and Guinea grass (Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi) hays and their replacement values in concentrate diets for rabbits were determined. The intake and growth of the rabbits were monitored over a 7-week growth study following a 2-week adaptation period, while nutrient digestibility was determined over a 5-day period during the eighth week of the study. The DM intakes of the rabbits during the growth study were 53.1 g/day of the grass + concentrate (50 : 50) diet, 56.0 g/day of the all-concentrate diet and 64.8 g/day for the Verano stylo + concentrate (50 : 50) diet. The respective weight gains were 5.13, 8.44 and 8.35 g/day. Lower DM intake and consistent losses in weight of the animals were recorded on Verano stylo or Guinea grass alone. Verano stylo hay was better than Guinea grass hay. Thus, concentrate supplementation of forage diets is necessary for rabbits. Replacement of 0.50 of the concentrate with Verano stylo hay gave a similar performance to that for the all-concentrate diet. It is, therefore, possible to reduce the use of concentrates in the diets for growing rabbits in the dry season by replacing part of the diet with Verano stylo hay.     

Age and sex affect protein metabolism at protein intakes that span the range of adequacy: comparison of leucine kinetics and nitrogen balance data

Research suggests that changes in leucine oxidation (leu_ox) with feeding may reflect adult protein requirements. We evaluated this possibility by assessing the effects of age, sex, and different protein intakes on whole-body leucine kinetics and nitrogen balance. Thirty-four young (n= 18, 22–46 years) and old (n= 16, 63–81 years) men and women completed three 18-day trials with protein intakes of 0.50, 0.75 and 1.00 g protein·kg body weight^? 1·d^? 1. Fasting and fed-state leucine kinetics were quantified on day 12 of each trial using a primed, constant infusion of L-[1-13C]leucine. Protein requirement was estimated using classical nitrogen balance measurements and calculations. Leucine kinetics parameters were influenced by age and sex across all protein intakes. With feeding, leu_ox increased more in old vs. young adults. Independent of age, fasting and fed-state leu_ox were lower, and net leucine balance (fasting+fed-state) was higher in women vs. men. Among all subjects and protein intakes, nitrogen balance was correlated with fed-state leu_ox (r= 0.39), fed-state leucine balance (r= 0.60), net leucine balance (r= 0.49) and the change in leu_ox from the fasting to fed state (r= 0.49) (P<.05 for all results). At the highest protein intake, the change in leu_ox with feeding was inversely correlated with protein requirement (r=?0.39). These findings indicate that leucine kinetics, especially leu_ox, reflect nitrogen balance-based estimates of the need for dietary protein and generally support the view that protein requirement is comparable between young and old adults.     

Associations between flavan-3-ol intake and CVD risk in the Norfolk cohort of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer (EPIC-Norfolk)

Dietary intervention studies suggest that flavan-3-ol intake can improve vascular function and reduce the risk of cardiovascular diseases (CVD). However, results from prospective studies failed to show a consistent beneficial effect. Associations between flavan-3-ol intake and CVD risk in the Norfolk arm of the European Prospective Investigation into Cancer and Nutrition (EPIC-Norfolk) were investigated. Data were available from 24,885 (11,252 men; 13,633 women) participants, recruited between 1993 and 1997 into the EPIC-Norfolk study. Flavan-3-ol intake was assessed using 7-day food diaries and the FLAVIOLA Flavanol Food Composition database. Missing data for plasma cholesterol and vitamin C were imputed using multiple imputation. Associations between flavan-3-ol intake and blood pressure at baseline were determined using linear regression models. Associations with CVD risk were estimated using Cox regression analyses. Median intake of total flavan-3-ols was 1034 mg/d (range: 0–8531 mg/d) for men and 970 mg/d (0–6695 mg/d) for women, median intake of flavan-3-ol monomers was 233 mg/d (0–3248 mg/d) for men and 217 (0–2712 mg/d) for women. There were no consistent associations between flavan-3-ol monomer intake and baseline systolic and diastolic blood pressure (BP). After 286,147 person-years of follow-up, there were 8463 cardiovascular events and 1987 CVD related deaths; no consistent association between flavan-3-ol intake and CVD risk (HR 0.93, 95% CI: 0.87; 1.00; Q1 vs Q5) or mortality was observed (HR 0.93, 95% CI: 0.84; 1.04). Flavan-3-ol intake in EPIC-Norfolk is not sufficient to achieve a statistically significant reduction in CVD risk.     

The intake and digestion of a range of temperate forages by sheep and fibre-producing goats

The voluntary intake, digestibility and mean retention time of six temperate forages differing in their chemical composition by 12 adult castrated male Scottish blackface sheep, aged 15 months, and fibre-producing castrated male goats, aged 27 months, and of similar live weight, 40 kg, were described. The creation of a range of chemical compositions was effected through the use of barley straw, and a low- and high-digestibility hay, and the use of ammonia treatment of these forages. A wide range of voluntary intakes (42–78 g DM/kg W^0.75/day), digestibility of dry matter (0.46–0.60) and mean retention times of undigested residues (36–72 h) was achieved through feeding the six forages. Across all the forages fibre-producing goats had higher voluntary intakes, expressed on a metabolic live weight basis, and lower digestibility values than sheep, whereas the mean retention time of the undigested residues was similar for the two species. Within forages goats selected a diet of potentially higher nutritive value, as predicted from chemical composition, with a smaller particle size than sheep. It was concluded that the differences in intake and digestion of temperate forages between sheep and fibre-producing goats are broadly similar to those observed in other experiments between sheep and goats ingesting tropical forages.     

Performance of West African dwarf goats fed Guinea grass–Verano stylo mixture,N-fertilized and unfertilized Guinea grass

The supplementary values of Verano stylo in a mixed Guinea grass (Panicum maximum cv. Ntchisi)–Verano stylo (Stylosanthes hamata cv. Verano) diet from a sown grass–legume mixture and N fertilized grass were compared in West African dwarf (WAD) goats. Liveweight (LW) gain, feed intake, digestibility and N utilization were determined using 15 goats in two trials lasting for 98 days. Goats were fed Guinea grass–Verano stylo mixture (GSM), N-fertilized (NFG) and unfertilized grass (UFG). The goats were divided into three groups of five animals each and randomly allocated to the dietary treatments in a randomized complete block design. Total DM and OM intakes of the goats did not vary significantly among the forage diets and averaged 55.1 and 50.4 g kg⁻¹ W^0.75 per day, respectively. CP intake (g kg⁻¹ W^0.75 per day) was highest with NFG (5.6) followed by GSM (4.8) and the UFG (3.5). Total N excreted followed the same trend as the CP intake. There was no significant difference between N-retention of GSM and NFG (28.5 and 26.7%), but goats on UFG had a negative N balance (−9.16%). Animals on GSM had significantly higher liveweight gain (31.9 g per day) than those of NFG (25.1 g per day) and UFG (21.9 g per day) which also differed significantly. The digestibilities of total DM, OM, CP, NDF were higher with GSM than NFG or UFG. It is concluded that growing Verano stylo in mixture with Guinea grass is a better option for improving the feed quality of forage diets for goats than direct application of inorganic fertilizer at 200 kg N ha⁻¹ to the pure grass.     

Revised reference values for selenium intake

The German, Austrian and Swiss nutrition societies are the joint editors of the ‘reference values for nutrient intake’. They have revised the reference values for the intake of selenium and published them in February 2015. The saturation of selenoprotein P (SePP) in plasma is used as a criterion for the derivation of reference values for selenium intake in adults. For persons from selenium-deficient regions (China) SePP saturation was achieved with a daily intake of 49 μg of selenium. When using the reference body weights the D-A-CH reference values are based upon, the resulting estimated value for selenium intake is 70 μg/day for men and 60 μg/day for women. The estimated value for selenium intake for children and adolescents is extrapolated using the estimated value for adults in relation to body weight. For infants aged 0 to under 4 months the estimated value of 10 μg/day was derived from the basis of selenium intake via breast milk. For infants aged 4 to under 12 months this estimated value was used and taking into account the differences regarding body weight an estimated value of 15 μg/day was derived. For lactating women compared to non-lactating women a higher reference value of 75 μg/day is indicated due to the release of selenium with breast milk. The additional selenium requirement for pregnant women is negligible, so that no increased reference value is indicated.     

Effects of feed intake on enteric methane emissions from sheep fed fresh white clover (Trifolium repens) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne) forages

Published analyses of enteric methane (CH₄) emissions from sheep and cattle show an inverse relationship between feed intake and CH₄ yield (g CH₄/kg dry matter (DM) intake), which suggests opportunities for reducing CH₄ emissions from feed eaten and per unit of animal production. Most relationships between feed intake and CH₄ yield have been based on animals fed conserved feeds, especially silages and grains. Our research is a series of experiments with fresh white clover (Trifolium repens) and perennial ryegrass (Lolium perenne; ryegrass) forages fed to sheep at a range of feed intake levels. This study was comprised of four experiments where good quality freshly harvested white clover or ryegrass were fed to sheep over a three-fold range in DM intake, and CH₄ emissions were measured in respiration chambers for two consecutive days in each experiment. Measurements were made from 16 sheep in Experiment 1 (fed at 1.6 × metabolizable energy requirements for maintenance; ME_m), 28 sheep in Experiment 2 (at 0.8 and 2.0 × ME_m), eight sheep and two measurement periods in Experiment 3 (at 1.6 × ME_m), and 30 sheep in Experiment 4 (fed at 0.8, 1.2, 1.6, 2.0 and 2.5 × ME_m). Prior to each experiment, sheep had a 10 d acclimatization period to diets. Apparent digestibility was measured over 7 d from sheep in Experiments 1, 3 and 4, along with collection of rumen digesta for volatile fatty acid (VFA) determination. Although CH₄ yields differed when sheep were fed white clover or ryegrass at similar intakes, the differences were inconsistent and mean values similar across all experiments. This, and a similar structure of all experiments, enabled combined analysis of data from all four experiments using the restricted maximum likelihood (REML) procedure to estimate effects of feed intake level on digestibility, digestible nutrient intake, gas emissions, and VFA concentrations in the rumen. The REML analysis showed that when DM intake increased from 0.40 to 1.60 kg/d, the predicted responses were an increase in CH₄ production (g/d) of 187% (12.4–35.6 g/d; P<0.001), and a decline in CH₄ yield of 21% (25.6–20.2 g/kg DM intake; P<0.001). High feed intake levels were associated with increased molar proportions (mM of total VFA) of propionate from 0.17 to 0.21 (P=0.038). Single and multiple regressions were completed on the data from all experiments, with organic matter (OM) intake predicting 0.87 of the variation in CH₄ production, and molar proportion of propionate predicting 0.60 of the variation in CH₄ yield. Increasing feed intakes by 1 kg/d of DM reduced CH₄ yield by 4.5 g/kg DM intake. Plant chemical composition was weakly related to CH₄ yield. High intakes of fresh forages will lower CH₄ yield from fermentation, but effects of feed composition on CH₄ emissions were minor. The interaction between effects of feed intake and rumen function requires further investigation to understand relationships with CH₄ emissions.     

Metal complexes of crosslinked chitosans: Correlations between metal ion complexation values and thermal properties

A series of heavy metal complexes of crosslinked chitosans were evaluated by thermogravimetric studies. The metal complexes with Cu, Cd and Hg ions exhibiting the highest complexing ability to chitosans (Hg 354–364, Cu 100–112, and Cd 121–160, in mg/g chitosan), had the lowest onset of degradation temperatures (range 194–210 °C) and the lowest final degradation temperatures (generally less than 294–304 °C for Hg, 296–338 °C for Cu, and 305–368 °C for Cd complexes). Mn ion, with the lowest binding to chitosans (Mn 5–7 mg/g), showed the reverse behavior, having onset (240–248 °C) and final degradation temperatures (range 300–368 °C). Zn (binding 74–87 mg/g) and Pb (binding 39–62 mg/g) ions have a binding ability intermediate to Cu/Cd/Hg and Mn extremes, and therefore the effects on onset and final degradation temperatures are intermediate to these values.     

Effect of suplemental nitrogen source and feeding frequency on nutrient supply to lambs fed a kikuyu grass (Pennisetum clandestinum) hay-based diet

Eight castrated male lambs (35 ± 4 kg live weight), fed a basal diet of kikuyu grass hay, were used in a replicated 4 × 4 Latin Square experiment with a 2 × 2 factorial arrangement of treatments to evaluate the effect of supplemental feeding frequency and source of rumen degradable N on intake, digestibility, ruminal fermentation, and microbial protein yield. Treatments were supplementation with cassava meal plus calcium caseinate or cassava meal plus urea offered at a rate of 7 g/kg live weight daily in one or two meals per day. Lambs were fed twice daily in such manner to allow ad libitum comsumption of forage. There was significant feeding frequency by N source interaction on variables of intake. In general, intake of feed components was higher (P ≤ 0.05) by lambs offered the caseinate-supplement twice daily over intake observed in lambs given the others diet treatments. Digestibility of feed components was neither affected by supplemental N source (DM, P = 0.541; OM, P = 0.585; NDF, P = 0.828) nor by feeding frequency (DM, P = 0.122; OM, P = 0.175; NDF, P = 0.591). Urinary excretion of N increased (P ≤ 0.05) in lambs supplemented twice daily whereas N retention was similar for all treatments (N source, P = 0.748; feeding frequency, P = 0.418). Microbial protein entering into the small intestine was affected by the interaction between feeding frequency and N source such as an increasing (P < 0.10) in this variable was observed when lambs received the caseinate but not the urea supplement twice daily. Efficiency of microbial protein synthesis, however, was not affected by treatments (N source, P = 0.588; feeding frequency, P = 0.334). Rumen pH averaged 6.70 and it was neither affected by N source (P = 0.827) nor by feeding frequency (P = 0.740). Ruminal concentration of ammonia N was not affected by feeding frequency (P = 0.144) while it increased (P < 0.05) when urea rather than caseinate was the supplemental N source (mean of 7.61 mg/dl vs. 6.00 mg/dl). Concentration of sugars in rumen fluid was higher (P ≤ 0.05) in lambs supplemented once a day compared to twice daily (mean of 49.4 mg/dl vs. 34.4 mg/dl) for both N sources. A significant (P ≤ 0.05) N source by feeding frequency interaction effect was observed for ruminal concentrations of α-amino N compounds. In urea treatment α-amino N concentration increased (P ≤ 0.05) in lambs receiving the supplement twice daily compared to once a day (mean of 4.59 mg/dl vs. 3.70 mg/dl) while in caseinate treatment it was higher (P ≤ 0.05) in lambs offered the supplement in one meal per day compared to twice daily (mean of 5.29 mg/dl vs. 4.07 mg/dl). In conclusion, for ruminants fed a tropical grass-based diet, starch-rich supplement containing non-protein N as N source may be offered only once a day whereas the supply of nutrients may be improved if degradable true protein is included as N source and supplement is offered in two meals per day.     

Digestibility,nitrogen balance,and blood metabolites in llama (Lama glama) and alpaca (lama pacos) fed barley or barley alfalfa diets

To determine the effect of barley diets on digestibility, nitrogen balance, and blood metabolites, mature gelded llamas and alpacas (n = 8; 4 llamas, 36 ± 4 months, 90 ± 10.7 kg; 4 alpacas, 24–36 months, 50 ± 4 kg) were randomly fed 100% barley (B) and 20% alfalfa/80% barley (BA) hay. Animals were housed in metabolism crates and diets were fed for a 7 days adjustment period followed by a 5 days collection period. Feed, feed refusal, feces and urine were collected, dried and N content determined by combustion analysis. Blood samples were collected on day 12 at 30 min intervals over a 6 h period. Plasma was harvested and analyzed for electrolytes (Na, K, Cl, Ca, Ca²⁺, P, Mg), metabolites glucose, non-esterified fatty acids (NEFAs), urea N, creatinine, albumin, total protein (TPP), osmolality (Osm). Plasma glucose, urea N, albumin, osmolality, electrolyte and metabolite levels were similar between species, and were unaffected by diet. On a metabolic weight basis, only diet was significant for N intake, urinary and fecal N, and total N excreted. Dry matter intake was not significantly different; however, BA consumption was greater than B, (B) 1272 g N/day and (BA) 1636 g N/day for llamas, and for alpacas (B) 835 g N/day and (BA) 1034 g N/day, respectively. Nitrogen intake followed the same pattern, (B) 21.4 g N/day and (BA) 33.9 g N/day, respectively for llamas, and (B) 13.6 g N/day and (BA) 20.6 g N/day, respectively for alpacas (diet, P < 0.002). Diet affects were significant for urine N excretion (P < 0.02), (B) 11.2 g/day and (BA) 18.2 g/day for llamas, and (B) 6.8 and (BA) 10.8 g N/day for alpacas. Fecal N excretion was different for diet (P < 0.03), with fecal excreted N of 9.0 g N/day and 11.9 g N/day for B and BA in llamas, and 5.9 g N/day and 9.1 g N/day for B and BA respectively in for alpacas, respectively. Nitrogen retention, DM digestibility and N digestibility were unaffected by diet or species. However, the llamas in this study displayed an increase in nitrogen intake of 64.6% between the B and BA diets with a 381% increase in N retention. Alpacas increased their N intake by 57.4% when they consumed the BA forage, which only increased N retention by 22.2%. These species differences indicate that alpacas have a lower N requirement to meet metabolic needs than llamas, which are likely related to the smaller body size of the alpaca. When examining the biological value of N from the respective diets, alpacas and llamas had a value of 56.2% when consuming barley. The BA diet had a higher biological value of 65.0% in llamas compared to 57.4% in alpacas. Therefore, on the basis of this study, extrapolations between llamas and alpacas with respect to nitrogen requirement and balance are not valid.     

Ergogenic and metabolic effects of oral glucocorticoid intake during repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise

All systemically administered glucocorticoids (GC) are prohibited in-competition, because of the potential ergogenic effects. Although short-term GC intake has been shown to improve performance during submaximal exercise, literature on its impact during brief intense exercise appears to be very scant. The purpose of this study was to examine the ergogenic and metabolic effects of prednisone during repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise. In a double-blind randomized protocol, ten recreational male athletes followed two 1-week treatments (Cor: prednisone, 60 mg/day or Pla: placebo). At the end of each treatment, they hopped on their dominant leg for 30 s three times consecutively and then hopped until exhaustion, with intervals of 5 min of passive recovery. Blood and saliva samples were collected at rest and 3 min after each exercise bout to determine the lactate, interleukin-6, interleukin-10, TNF-alpha, DHEA and testosterone values. The absolute peak force of the dominant leg was significantly increased by Cor but only during the first 30-s hopping bout (p < 0.05), whereas time to exhaustion was not significantly changed after Cor treatment vs Pla (Pla: 119.9 ± 24.7; Cor: 123.1 ± 29.5 s). Cor intake lowered basal and end-exercise plasma interleukin-6 and saliva DHEA (p < 0.01) and increased interleukin-10 (p < 0.01), whereas no significant change was found in blood lactate and TNF-alpha or saliva testosterone between Pla and Cor. According to these data, short-term glucocorticoid intake did not improve endurance performance during repeated bouts of high-intensity exercise, despite the significant initial increase in absolute peak force and anti-inflammatory effect.     

Effects of starvation on lipid accumulation and antioxidant response in the right and left lobes of liver in large yellow croaker Pseudosciaena crocea

The present study aimed to determine the effects of starvation on lipid content and antioxidant responses in the right and left lobes of liver in large yellow croaker. Fish were divided into three groups: the control fish fed normally and the fish starved for 4 and 12 days. The set of biomarkers were determined, including crude lipid and MDA contents, and mRNA levels and activities of copper and zinc superoxide dismutase (Cu/Zn-SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione peroxidase (GPx) and glutathione reductase (GR). Starvation for 12 days decreased lipid content and increased MDA content and mRNA levels and activities of antioxidant enzyme genes tested in both lobes of liver. No significant difference in these biomarkers between both lobes of liver was observed in fish starved for 12 days. However, there were significant differences between both lobes of liver in lipid and MDA contents, activities of CAT and GR, and expression levels of Cu/Zn-SOD and GR in fish starved for 4 days. These observed differences between starved and fed fish and between both lobes of liver could be important biomarkers that contributed in separating starved from fed fish and short-term starved from long-term starved fish, respectively. Our study emphasized the same lobe of the liver should be sampled when evaluating biomarkers during starvation in fish.     

Effect of high temperature on active oxygen species,senescence and photosynthetic properties in cucumber leaves

To gain a physiological understanding of the effects of high temperatures on cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.), we subjected seedlings to heat treatment at daytime temperatures of 28 °C, 32 °C, and 36 °C for 7 h a day for 30 days. The amount of active oxygen species, indicators of senescence, and photosynthetic properties in the second and third leaves were determined at the start of temperature treatment and on the 15th and 30th days of treatment. The amount of active oxygen species superoxide in leaves was greatest in the high temperature zones on the 15th day of treatment, and the amount of hydrogen peroxide was greatest in the high temperature zones on both the 15th and 30th days of treatment. The reduction in the amount of protein and the increase in the amount of malondialdehyde, both indicators of senescence, were greatest in the high temperature zones on both the 15th and 30th days of treatment, and the amount of chlorophyll was lowest in the 36 °C zone on the 15th day, and lower in the high temperature zones on the 30th day. It is clear from these results that a large amount of active oxygen species is generated and accumulated in the leaves at high temperatures, and senescence is significantly accelerated. The photosynthetic properties of stomatal conductance, sub-stomatal CO₂ concentration, and transpiration rate were at the same level on both the 15th and 30th days of treatment in all three temperature treatment zones. No significant difference was seen in the net photosynthesis rate between the 28 °C and 32 °C zones, was lower in the 36 °C zone than the 32 °C zone on the 15th day, and lowest in the 36 °C zone on the 30th day. CO₂ intake and water absorption are only mildly affected by high temperatures, and the reduction in net photosynthesis rate due to the 36 °C high temperature stress suggests that the large amount of active oxygen species induces inhibition of photosynthesis and damage to the mechanism of photosynthesis.     

Effect of copper sources and levels on serum lipid profiles in Black Bengal (Capra hircus) kids

Twenty eight 2–3 month old castrated male Black Bengal kids (Capra hircus) were used to determine the effects of dietary Cu concentration on lipid metabolism. These kids were randomly assigned to one of seven treatments in a ((2 × 3) + 1) factorial arrangement. Factors were two sources of Cu (CuSO₄ versus Cu proteinate) fed at three dietary levels (10, 20 or 30 mg/kg) and the control group, where neither CuSO₄ nor Cu proteinate were supplemented. Kids were fed a basal diet containing maize (19.5%), soybean (17.0%), deoiled rice bran (56.5%), molasses (4.0%), di-calcium phosphate and salt (1.0% each), and mineral and vitamin mixture (0.5% each) supplements, at 3.5% of BW to meet NRC requirements for protein, energy, macro minerals and micro minerals, excluding Cu. The basal diet (DM basis) contained 5.7 mg Cu/kg, 122.5 mg Fe/kg, 110 mg Zn/kg, 0.26 mg Mo/kg and 0.32% S. CuSO₄ or Cu proteinate (Cu-P) was added to the basal diet at the rate of 10, 20 and 30 mg/kg. Kids were housed in a well-ventilated shed with facilities for individual feeding in aluminum plated metabolic cages in an open-sided barn. Blood samples were collected on Days 0, 30, 60 and 90 to determine serum cholesterol, high density lipoprotein (HDL), total lipid and phospholipids. Kids were slaughtered after metabolism trial and liver tissues were collected to determine the copper and zinc concentrations. Kids receiving Cu-P showed higher (P < 0.05) HDL, total lipid and phospholipid concentrations. Increase in dietary level of Cu significantly decreased (P < 0.05) serum cholesterol and increased serum HDL, total lipid and phospholipid concentrations. There was an increasing (P < 0.05) trend in liver Cu with the increased dietary level of Cu supplementation irrespective of source, but the increasing rate was greater with CuSO₄ than Cu-P supplementation. Kids’ diet containing 30 mg/kg CuSO₄ had 26% more liver Cu than those fed iso-amounts of Cu-P. Fecal Cu excretion was increased with the increasing dietary level of Cu, and excretion was reduced by the use of Cu-P in the diet. In conclusion, dietary supplementation of organic Cu in the form of copper proteinate had significant effects on lipid metabolism in goat kids. There was an increase in accumulation of Cu in the liver and excretion of Cu in feces with the increase of dietary level of Cu in the diet of Black Bengal kids.     

Prefermentation to overcome nutrient limitations in food processing wastewater: Comparison of pilot- and bench-scale systems

A bench- and a pilot-scale anaerobic/aerobic system were evaluated for the treatment of high strength tomato-processing wastewater. The pilot-scale anaerobic tank achieved better prefermentation of organic carbon and nitrogen than the bench-scale system, although overall system performance was comparable with more than 99% SBOD removal and 97% SCOD removal. Hydraulic retention time (HRT) and temperature effects were studied in the bench-scale system. Increase of anaerobic HRT from 0.25 day to 0.5 day favored prefermentation and a better effluent quality was achieved, as demonstrated by reduction in TSS concentrations from 66 mg/L to 24 mg/L, SCOD from 103 mg/L to 78 mg/L and SBOD from 8 mg/L to 6 mg/L, respectively. Specific oxygen uptake rate (SOUR) increased from 0.15–0.23 mg O₂/mg VSS day at 25 °C to 0.67–1.24 mg O₂/mg VSS day at 32 °C. Settling characteristics deteriorated from sludge volume index (SVI) of 24–131 mL/g at 25 °C to 115–173 mL/g at 32 °C. Sludge yield decreased from 0.14 g VSS/g COD at 25 °C to 0.098 g VSS/g COD at 32 °C.     

Comparative studies on dry matter intake,digestibility and nitrogen metabolism between Thai native (TN) and Anglo Nubian × TN bucks

Metabolic experiments were conducted for each Thai native (TN) and Anglo Nubian–TN 50% (AN × TN) bucks, 26.5–38 kg BW and 35–52 months of age, by assigning the following concentrate diets, which had four levels of CP concentrations, T1: 14%, T2: 21%, T3: 28% and T4: 35%, on a DM basis. The animals were fed the concentrates at a rate of 1% of their BW and had ad libitum access to Paspalum plicatulum hay. As the CP level increased, digestibility of CP, N excretion in urine and N retention increased (P < 0.01). No significant differences of DM digestibility among the CP levels of diet and between the breeds of bucks were observed. The AN × TN had higher DM intake than TN (P < 0.05, 40.9 g/(kg BW^0.75 day) versus 36.0 g/(kg BW^0.75 day)), thus N intake of AN × TN was higher than that of TN (P < 0.01, 0.99 g/(kg BW^0.75 day) versus 0.90 g/(kg BW^0.75 day)). Digestibility of CP and blood urea N concentrations of TN were higher than those of AN × TN (P < 0.05, 69.8% versus 64.0% and 32.2 mg/dl versus 26.7 mg/dl, respectively). The AN × TN tended to retain more N than TN in the higher CP feeding condition of T3 (0.19 g/(kg BW^0.75 day) versus 0.11 g/(kg BW^0.75 day)) and T4 (0.25 g/(kg BW^0.75 day) versus 0.17 g/(kg BW^0.75 day)). Digestibility of NDF and ADF, and TDN of TN were higher than those of AN × TN (P < 0.05, 61.1% versus 55.9%, 49.6% versus 43.5% and 65.8% versus 62.4%, respectively). The overall mean DE was 109 kcal/(kg BW^0.75 day), and no significant difference of DE among CP levels nor breeds of bucks was observed. Thai native was superior to AN × TN in digestibility of N and fiber fractions at the maintenance level of DE, which might have overcome inferiority of TN to AN × TN in amount of N and energy intake caused by the lower DMI. It is likely that TN goats are well adapted to fodder shortage condition due to their efficient utilization of nutrients.