Notes on some new records and new species of cetrarioid lichens from India

Additional occurrences of cetrarioid lichens in India are documented. Tuckneraria sikkimensis Divakar & Upreti sp. nov. is described as a new species. Tuckneraria ahtii Randlane & Saag, T. togashii (Asahina) Randlane & A. Thell and Cetrelia sinensis W.L. Culb. & C.F. Culb. are reported as new records.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 150 , 249–251.     

The fossil history of palms (Arecaceae) in Africa and new records from the Late Oligocene (28–27 Mya) of north-western Ethiopia

The African palm fossil record is limited but the data provide an outline of palm evolution from the Late Cretaceous through the Neogene. Pollen attributed to palms is reported from the Aptian (125–112 Mya), but the earliest unequivocal record in Africa is Campanian (83.5–70.6 Mya). Palms diversified 83.5–65.5 Mya and became widespread, although most records are from the west and north African coasts. Many taxa were shared between Africa and northern South America at that time, but a few were pantropical. Extirpations occurred throughout the Palaeogene, including a notable species turnover and decline at the Eocene–Oligocene boundary (33.9 Mya), a change that resulted in the elimination of nypoid palms from Africa. The Neogene plant macrofossil record is better sampled than the Palaeogene, although few palms are documented. Thus, the low diversity of African palms today is more likely the result of Palaeogene, rather than Neogene extinctions. Newly discovered palm fossils of leaves, petioles and flowers from the Late Oligocene (27–28 Mya) of north-western Ethiopia document the abundance and dominance of palms in some communities at that time. The fossils represent the earliest records of the extant genera Hyphaene (Coryphoideae) and Eremospatha (Calamoideae).  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 151 , 69–81.     

Checklist of the Caesalpinioideae (Leguminosae) of Equatorial Guinea (Annobón, Bioko and Río Muni)

This study provides a checklist of the Caesalpinioideae (Leguminosae) present in Equatorial Guinea, comprising 52 genera and 124 taxa. Seven species are known from Annobón, 33 from Bioko and 109 from Río Muni. The best represented genus is Senna with eight species. In addition, bibliographic references for Caesalpinioideae (Leguminosae) from Equatorial Guinea have been gathered and checked. Fourteen species are included based on literature records, because their distribution ranges suggest they may occur in Equatorial Guinea, 11 introduced species could be naturalized, and 45 taxa are recorded for the first time from the country. This represents an increase of over 35% in the floristic knowledge of Caesalpinioideae from Equatorial Guinea. A statistical summary is presented at the end of the checklist.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 151 , 541–562.     

Phylogeographical patterns and genetic diversity in three species of Eurasian boreal forest beetles

Many species that occur in formerly glaciated areas of Fennoscandia have reached their current ranges from glacial refugial areas in Eurasia. Little is known of the refugia and postglacial colonization routes of insect species that are confined to boreal forests. Here, we investigate the phylogeography of three species of saproxylic beetles distributed across Eurasia: two rare boreal forest specialists, Pytho kolwensis and Pytho abieticola , and a common, less specialized species, Pytho depressus . In all species, there were two well-defined haplotype clades based on 645 bp of cytochrome oxidase subunit I gene sequence. In each species one clade was found only in China. The other clade occurred from China to north-western Europe in both P. kolwensis and P. depressus , but was apparently absent from China in P. abieticola. In spite of common phylogeographical patterns, the distribution of genetic variation differed markedly between the three species. In P. kolwensis , a highly-threatened species in old-growth forests in Fennoscandia, there was an extremely low level of genetic variation throughout Eurasia. One common haplotype, represented by 86% of the samples, dominated in all sampling localities. Levels of genetic variation were higher in both P. abieticola and P. depressus , with 31% and 58%, respectively, of the samples representing a unique haplotype. In each species, relationships between haplotypes were not well resolved, and haplotypes from one sampling locality were generally not clustered in either Neighbour-joining trees or statistical parsimony networks. These patterns in the distribution of genetic variation can be attributed to differences in the species' population sizes, ecologies, glacial refugial areas, and postglacial colonization dynamics.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 91 , 267–279.     

Can we predict centres of plant species richness and rarity from environmental variables in sub‐Saharan Africa?

In order to investigate continental-scale patterns of plant species richness and rarity, distribution maps of 3661 plant species were digitized into a one degree grid of sub-Saharan Africa using the WORLDMAP computer programme. Cells with high species richness were also likely to be those containing the greatest number of species of restricted range, but areas such as the South African Cape and the Eastern Arc mountains were found to have more restricted-range species than predicted from their richness scores. The two environmental predictors which had the strongest individual relationships with both species richness and range-size rarity were absolute maximum annual temperature and mean monthly potential evapotranspiration. However, correlative predictive powers of these variables were low, with R =−0.58 and R =−0.54, respectively ( P  < 0.01). Multiple regression also failed to produce a strong explanatory model for observed continental-scale patterns of diversity. Spatial variability analysis showed that this was likely to be because different environmental parameters predicted different centres of richness and rarity. West African species richness was better predicted by absolute maximum annual temperature, whereas East African species richness was better predicted by mean monthly potential evapotranspiration.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 142 , 187–197.     

Traditional morphometrics in plant systematics and its role in palm systematics

A review is given of the role of traditional morphometrics in plant systematics. The three most commonly used techniques of data analysis – Cluster Analysis, Principal Component Analysis and Discriminant Analysis – are discussed. The kinds of data that can be taken from palm specimens and the problems of using specimens as data sources are outlined. Published systematic studies of palms using traditional morphometrics are reviewed. More recent studies indicate that: hybrid zones between species may be common; infraspecific diversity is greater than previously suspected; there may be more than double the currently accepted number of species; and our current knowledge of morphological variation in palms is superficial. A procedure for scientific systematics is given, which incorporates traditional morphometric methods.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 151 , 103–111.     

Inferring evolutionary patterns from the biogeographical distributions of mutualists and exploiters

Exploitation may lead to the breakdown of obligate species-specific mutualisms. However, the mutualism between Roridula (plants) and Pameridea (hemipterans) is often exploited by spiders. The aim of the present study was to determine when the exploiters became associated with the Roridula-Pameridea mutualism. The phylogenetic and geographical associations between Roridula and Pameridea are documented and the distribution patterns of Roridula and exploiters are overlaid to see how closely they correlate. A geographical discontinuity in Roridulas ' range divides both the host plants and associated hemipterans into two sister species so that each hemipteran species is associated with a different plant species. This suggests that Roridula was associated with Pameridea before fragmentation/vicariance events split the genus, allowing allopatric speciation. By contrast, Roridula is only associated with exploiters in parts of its current range. This suggests that exploiters are unable to traverse the disjunctions in Roridulas' distribution and that they only developed associations with the mutualism after vicariance events. It is hypothesized that Pameridea and Roridula were closely associated for a long period before the invasion of nonmutualists. The absence of associated nonmutualist species may have helped facilitate the evolution of an obligate interaction between Roridula and Pameridea .  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 89 , 541–549.     

Historical influences on genital morphology among sympatric species: gonopod evolution and reproductive isolation in the crayfish genus Orconectes (Cambaridae)

Freshwater crayfishes represent an incredibly diverse component of temperate aquatic ecosystems. The genus Orconectes (Cambaridae) comprises approximately 17% of total global crayfish diversity and is native to central and eastern North America. Using both Bayesian and parsimony-based phylogenetic hypotheses from complete cytochrome c oxidase subunit I (COI) mtDNA sequence data (1545 bp) along with information on male gonopod shape and species distribution patterns, we examined the evolution of male genital morphology and its potential influence on species co-occurrence. We found that sympatric species exhibited similar male genital morphology more often than expected based on the frequency of genital shapes within the genus. When evolutionary history was incorporated into this analysis, the result was no longer significant, suggesting that species co-occurrence and the associated genital shapes of sympatric congeners cannot be explained solely by interspecific ecological interactions. Our results also do not support the current subgeneric classifications within Orconectes or the monophyly of the genus, both of which have been based previously on male genital morphology.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 89 , 1–12.     

Distributional patterns of the Neotropical humid montane forest avifaunas

The study of biogeographical patterns of the Neotropical humid montane forest avifauna has been prevented due to the lack of phylogenetic hypotheses for most taxa, and to the paucity of detailed studies about the geographical distribution for most of the species. Distributional patterns of this avifauna were explored by integrating predictive distributional models and Parsimony Analysis of Endemicity (PAE). Distributional maps were generated using the Genetic Algorithms for Rule Set Prediction for 442 species; this information was transformed into a data matrix for analysis with PAE. Hierarchical information corresponding to the genus level was incorporated to help resolve the relationships between areas. A strict consensus cladogram showed a clear separation between the Mesoamerican and South American avifaunas. Within the Mesoamerican clade, three geographically structured groups were obtained, whereas the South American clade showed a polytomy of three groups, with two of them, the South Andean Yungas and the Tepuis, located outside the main clade. The third group is a well resolved clade, including areas from eastern Panama and northern Venezuela to central Bolivia. Area relationships suggest a mixed history of dispersal and vicariant events, with the latter being the most important for explaining the biogeographical patterns found.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 94 , 175–194.     

Clonality and recombination in the arctic plant Saxifraga cernua

The circumarctic clonal plant Saxifraga cernua reproduces efficiently via bulbils, largely depends on insects for pollination and appears to set seed very rarely. However, high levels of genotypic variation observed at small spatial scales in the arctic archipelago of Svalbard have been taken as evidence of occasional sexual reproduction. Here we assess the relative contributions of mutation and recombination to random amplified polymorphic DNA variation in four populations in East Greenland and re-analyse the Svalbard data. Greater variation due to recombination was predicted in Greenland than in Svalbard, because the higher summer temperatures and longer growing season likely increase the chances for sexual reproduction. Although we observed higher levels of genotypic diversity in Greenland than in Svalbard, matrix incompatibility and linkage disequilibrium measures provided no evidence of more sexuality, suggesting differences in glacial/postglacial history. The genetic structure and spatial distribution of clones suggest that clonal migration may increase variability in local populations, which is consistent with frequent large-scale migration in this species inferred from a circumarctic analysis of chloroplast DNA haplotypes. We conclude that a combination of somatic mutations and sexual reproduction has contributed to the observed patterns of genotypic diversity in the Greenland and Svalbard populations of S. cernua , and that sexual reproduction is important in maintaining genotypic diversity, despite the rarity of observations of seed setting.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 152 , 209–217.     

Genetic diversity and structure of the cycad Zamia loddigesii Miq. (Zamiaceae): implications for evolution and conservation

The genetic diversity and structure of four populations of the cycad Zamia loddigesii were studied throughout its range in Mexico. Allozyme electrophoresis of 15 loci was conducted. The mean number of alleles per locus was 1.80 ± 0.09, the percentage of polymorphic loci was 66.6 ± 5.4, and the expected heterozygosity was 0.266 ± 0.02. The results indicated that the genetic diversity was relatively higher, with respect to tropical tree species and other cycads. The genetic variation explained by differences among populations was 18%. On average, gene flow between paired populations was similar ( Nm  = 1.6) to other tropical forest trees and cycad species. Our results indicated that the geographical isolation among populations of Z. loddigesii generated allele loss, as well as a clinal variation in the frequencies of two loci ( MDH and MNR2 ), in relation to the latitudinal distribution of populations. The populations have become fragmented due to increasingly higher pressure of habitat conversion and disturbance. The importance of the establishment of sanctuaries and protected areas and a reduction in deforestation is highlighted in this research as a way of preserving the high genetic diversity of this and other endemic species.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 152 , 533–544.     

Mitochondrial gene diversity in Cepaea– population structure, history and positive selection

Previous studies on the geographical distributions of both shell polymorphisms and mitochondrial haplotypes in Cepaea land snails have suggested varying contributions of natural selection, random genetic drift and population history to the origin and persistence of variation. We combine previous studies of polymorphism within two species of Cepaea , with new molecular data from two mitochondrial genes. The distributions of mitochondrial variants suggest that elements of population history may have been influential in creating patterns of diversity. However, some patterns of amino acid substitution that are found in a protein coding gene are also consistent with the action of diversifying selection. This suggests the possibility that in addition to stochastic processes such as repeated founder events, local extinctions and random genetic drift within a structured population, adaptive molecular change may have affected mitochondrial diversity.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2006, 87 , 167–184.     

Floristic changes in the British Isles: comparison of techniques for assessing changes in frequency of plants with time

Botanical recording data are often used to assess changes in the frequencies of plant species over time, but are subject to marked variations in recording activity. We compare and evaluate some general methods that can be used to detect changes in species' frequencies taking into account the recording variations. Models for 15 species that have been studied in detail previously were compared using the numbers of individual records, sites, hectads, or vice-counties at different time scales (year, decade, moving averages, and pre-/post- specific dates), with or without correction for recording variation. The best methods had a correction for the amount of recording over time, summarized records by decade or moving average, and used an extrapolation between first and last records for sites or hectads. Increasing the geographical and temporal scales can decrease the influence of recording variations, but leads to a loss of sensitivity and under-estimates the true extent of change. The choice between sites and hectads will depend on the detail of the records available; cruder data sets should use the latter.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 152 , 279–301.     

Tree diversity and phytogeographical patterns of tropical high mountain rain forests in Central Sulawesi,Indonesia

Tropical high mountain forests in Lore Lindu National Park, Sulawesi, Indonesia, were described by their floristic composition and the importance of tree families (Family importance values, FIV), based on tree inventories conducted on 4 plots (each 0.24 ha) in old-growth forest stands at c. 1800 and 2400 m a.s.l. (mid- and upper montane elevations). To identify general patterns and regional peculiarities of the forests in the SE Asian and SW Pacific context, the biogeography of the tree species was analysed using distribution records. Out of the total of 87 tree species, only 18 species were found at both elevational zones. The discovery of new species and new distribution records (28% of the data set) highlights the deficiencies in the taxonomic and distribution data for Sulawesi. Sulawesi endemism rate was 20%. In the mid-montane Fagaceae–Myrtaceae forests, Lithocarpus spp. (Fagaceae) were overall important (4 spp. occupying around half of the total basal area) and the Myrtaceae the most species rich (8 spp.), thus showing typical features of Malesian montane forests. The upper montane conifer-Myrtaceae forest contained several high mountain tree taxa and showed affinity to the forests of New Guinea. The mountain flora comprised both eastern and western Malesian elements, with the nearest neighbouring islands Borneo and Maluku both sharing species with Sulawesi, reflecting the complex palaeogeography of the island. A separate analysis showed the mid-montane forest to possess greatest biogeographical affinity to Borneo/western Malesia, and the upper montane forest had a number of typical elements of Papuasia/eastern Malesia and the Phillipines, which may be a result of historical patterns in land connection and the emergence of mountain ranges.     

A new violet species (Violaceae) from the south-west Alps

Viola laricicola Marcussen sp. nov. is described from collections from four French and Italian localities in the south-west Alps. It is closely related to V. riviniana (section Trigonocarpea ) but differs in a few morphological characters and by the chromosome number 2 n  = 20. Viola laricicola is endemic to the montane and subalpine coniferous forests in the continental parts of the Alps.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 142 , 119–123.     

Seasonality, microhabitat and cryptic variation in tropical salamander reproductive cycles

In many salamanders, most aspects of reproduction coincide with seasonal changes in abiotic factors such as temperature and humidity. However, while these reproductive patterns have been well documented for temperate salamanders, detailed data for tropical species are relatively sparse. I used histological techniques to examine temporal variation in the spermatogenetic cycles of four species of Guatemalan bolitoglossine salamanders ( Bolitoglossa occidentalis , B. rostrata , Dendrotriton bromeliacia and Pseudoeurycea goebeli ) from different microhabitats along an elevational gradient. All four species have mature sperm present in the testis throughout the year, irrespective of patterns of courtship and egg-laying. Additionally, the two species from more seasonal habitats ( B. occidentalis and B. rostrata ) exhibit significant but cryptic levels of variation in the amount of spermatozoa present in the testis not detectable by external appearance or the presence of secondary sexual characteristics. For the two species from less seasonal cloud forests ( D. bromeliacia and P. goebeli ), there were no detectable patterns to variation within the testis. Regional variation in climate undoubtedly influences reproductive cycles, however, microhabitat and the immediate environment are also important determinants of reproductive strategy.  © 2003 The Linnean Society of London . Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 78 , 489–496.     

Two approaches for the selection of Relevant Genetic Units for Conservation in the narrow European endemic steppe plant Boleum asperum (Brassicaceae)

Several methods based on population biology, biogeography, ecology, and genetics have been traditionally used for the identification of units for conservation below the species level. We use a combination of two methods based on population genetic structure estimators and on probabilities of loss of rare alleles to identify the Relevant Genetic Units for Conservation (RGUCs). The aims were to assess the genetic diversity and population structure of the endemic steppe plant Boleum asperum (Brassicaceae), and to determine how many and which populations significantly represent the total genetic diversity and the rarest allelic variation. Despite the high amplified fragment length polymorphism genetic diversity values detected in B. asperum ( h _T = 0.744), caused probably by its hexaploidy and allogamy, moderate spatial genetic differentiation was detected among populations (< 20%) and geographical ranges (> 13%), suggesting the existence of an ancestral continuous distribution range that was fragmented into separate 'islands' in more recent historical times. Five RGUCs, accounting for the 85.10% of the total genetic variation and representative of the entire geographical distribution of the species, were selected for in situ conservation. Ex situ conservation is proposed to complement the preservation of B. asperum . This method of objective selection of populations may be applied to other candidate taxa for conservation with prior adjustment of the threshold values of diversity required for effective protection of each particular species.  © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2008, 94 , 341–354.     

Diversity, flower visitation frequency and generalism of pollinators in temperate rain forests of Chiloé Island, Chile

Species richness and taxonomic composition of pollinator assemblages are documented for 26 plant species from temperate rain forests of northern Chiloé Island, southern Chile (42°30'S). We investigated the patterns of generalism and specialization among plants and animal pollinators by comparing the flower visit frequency by different pollen vectors during the spring and summer months of three consecutive years (2000–2002). Species studied exhibited a range of floral morphologies (radial vs. zygomorphic, open vs. tubular) and rewards (nectar and/or pollen). Overall, we recorded 172 pollinator species, with an average of 6.6 species of pollen vectors/plant species. Pollinators visited an average of 15.2 plant species/pollen vector. Pollinator assemblages were dominated by Coleoptera (75 species), Diptera (56 species) and Hymenoptera (30 species), but passerine birds and hummingbirds were also important. The most specialized plants were vines, including the bee-pollinated genus Luzuriaga (Philesiaceae) and two endemic species of hummingbird-pollinated Gesneriaceae. Hymenoptera contributed 41.2% of all visits, with the bumblebee Bombus dalhbomii accounting for 22.5% of these. Plants with unspecialized flower morphology supported a higher species richness of pollinators, but visiting rates did not differ from specialized flowers.  © 2005 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2005, 147 , 399–416.     

Molecular taxonomy and phylogeography of Miniopterus schreibersii (Kuhl, 1817) (Chiroptera: Vespertilionidae), in the Eurasian transition

Miniopterus schreibersii is a polytypic bat species, with one of the widest distribution ranges among the mammals. We studied the genetic differentiation and taxonomy of this species in the transition zone between south-eastern Europe and Anatolia (in Asia), where two subspecies have been described. The results indicated a sharp genetic break between the samples from western Anatolia and south-eastern Europe and those of eastern Anatolia. In addition, the samples from western Anatolia and south-eastern Europe were seen to be reciprocally monophyletic, although the differentiation was less drastic. These patterns of genetic differentiation suggest the presence of two distinct groups within the M. schreibersii complex in the region, concordant with previous subspecific recognition. The cause of this genetic break is most likely differentiation in separate glacial refugia followed by secondary contact. However, more samples are needed to assess whether these represent different species, as well as to understand more clearly the causes of this differentiation.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 87 , 577–582.     

Relationships between drosophilids (Diptera, Drosophilidae) and the environment in two contrasting tropical vegetations

Although natural populations of drosophilid flies have been the subject of ecological studies, the population ecology of these insects in the tropics is still poorly known. This paper discusses aspects of the relationship between drosophilids and their environment, based on 28 monthly collections made in two contrasting vegetations of the Brazilian Cerrado biome: gallery forest and savanna. Exotic species were found in both types of environment; but 14 of the 30 captured Neotropical species occurred exclusively in the gallery forests, probably because of their climatic stability and greater environmental heterogeneity. Even though some endemic species were more abundant in the dry and cold months, most populations exhibited peaks of abundance in the wet season. The species diversity indexes (H' and D), higher in the dry season, were probably affected by increased evenness at this time of year, when the populations of practically all the species are greatly reduced. As species richness in the savanna vegetation clearly decreased in the dry season, increasing again in the wet season, it is suggested that some drosophilids migrate to the forests when climatic conditions are too stressful in the savannas.  © 2006 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society , 2006, 87 , 233–247.