Red deer habitat selection and movements in relation to roads

Roads affect wildlife in many direct and indirect ways. For ungulates, roads may inhibit seasonal migration and may cause an effective loss of habitat due to avoidance. On the other hand, roadsides and associated agricultural lands offer high quality forage that may attract ungulates and increase the frequency of car accidents. Mitigating actions require detailed knowledge on space use in relation to roads. Using data from 67 global positioning system (GPS)-marked red deer in Norway, we quantified 1) scale of avoidance of roads, 2) crossing frequency, and 3) selection of crossing sites. Red deer avoided roads only on a very local scale and only during daytime, with minor influence of variation in road size (traffic burden). Marked red deer crossed roads, on average, 2 times per day. Females crossed more frequently than males and crossings were most frequent during autumn and winter and during night. Deer selected forested crossing sites close to agricultural pastures, reflecting that roads are crossed most often on nightly feeding excursions. Our findings imply that red deer in our study area have adjusted to exploit feeding habitat close to roads at times of low traffic burden. The high frequency of crossings suggests a limited influence on seasonal migration patterns. The frequency at which red deer cross highways suggests that mitigation measures to reduce road mortality may be effective if targeted in the right areas. © 2012 The Wildlife Society.     

The use of natural shelter by Red deer (Cervus elaphus) in relation to weather in North-east Scotland

The use of natural shelter in relation to weather by Red deer on open moorland is described. Most shelter-seeking behaviour in winter was associated with the chilling effects of wind. Although deer sheltered from both wind speed and temperature individually, the combined effect of these (i.e. "windchill") was likely to be most important. The most important individual factor was wind. In winter, resting deer sheltered from the wind by lying on lee slopes, in long vegetation, on dry ground and in places with small amounts of geomorphic shelter; they sought very sheltered places only during blizzards. Deer were found in more shelter as windchill increased, and did not appear to seek constant conditions from day to day. They put up with worse conditions when feeding than when resting. On summer days with high temperatures and strong sun, deer were seen standing when at rest, and were found in the shade, and on wet or bare ground; they also lay in the wind, bathed in water or stood on patches of old snow.     

White-tailed deer vary offspring sex-ratio according to maternal condition and age

We tested two models of adaptive offspring sex-ratio that predict opposite optimal reproductive strategies for female white-tail deer (Odocoileus virginianus). Trivers and Willard's model predicts that does (females) in particularly good condition should produce sons, and Williams refined their model to make specific predictions about optimal offspring number/sex choices. Verme's model results in very different predictions because of very different assumptions about which sex of offspring can best benefit from high levels of maternal resources. We found clear support for the Trivers and Willard/Williams model when we analyzed data from road-killed does, and we furthermore question several of the assumptions of the Verme model.     

The timing of reproduction in Red deer (Cervus elaphus) in relation to latitude

A survey was carried out of the birth dates of Red deer calves born in zoological gardens throughout the world in an attempt to assess the effects of latitude on the timing of conception. The results showed that Red deer in the Northern Hemisphere calve at a similar time of the year irrespective of latitude, and that there is no increase in the length of the calving season as the equator is approached; south of the equator, calving is shifted by six months. Populations living at similar latitudes can show small variations of up to two weeks between the median calving dates.     

Some properties of Red deer (Cervus elaphus) at exceptionally high population-density in Scotland

This paper records some features of Red deer ( Cervus elaphus L.) at very high population density on a Scottish island. About half the total population was shot-out in autumn 1974, and half the remainder in autumn 1975, with special searches for deer which had died of natural causes during the intervening year. In all, the animals examined amounted to 80% of the original population, and from the data gathered it was possible to (i) assess the structure and reproductive features of the original population; (ii) examine the level of animal performance at this exceptionally high population-density; and (iii) check for any changes in performance arising from the initial reduction in density.
The sex-ratio of adults in the original population showed a small excess of hinds, stags being apparently subject to a higher mortality rate than hinds after about six years of age. In performance, these deer were much the same as those living elsewhere on Scottish hill-land at relatively high population-density, i.e. with delayed puberty and poor breeding rates in hinds, and with much smaller adults than in woodland habitats. But, contrary to expectation, the general level of performance was not unusually low for Red deer on Scottish hill-land, and there was no evidence of transmissible diseases or excessive parasitism. It was also surprising that the animals showed no improvements in performance following their first reduction; if anything, they were slightly poorer after one year at reduced density. This may have been a temporary consequence of the severe disruption of existing behaviour patterns brought about by the sudden loss of many groups of deer.     

Parasites and condition of coexisting populations of white-tailed and exotic deer in south-central Texas.

We examined the parasites and physical condition of coexisting white-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus), axis deer (Axis axis), fallow deer (Dama dama), and sika deer (Cervus nippon) on the YO Ranch (Kerr County, Texas, USA) during December 1982 to January 1984. White-tailed deer harbored 12 species of parasites. Exotic deer were infected with nine species of parasites. All parasites recovered from exotic deer and white-tailed deer have been reported from white-tailed deer. Exotic deer had higher condition ratings than white-tailed deer.     

Mandibular fluoride concentration and its relation to age in roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.)

1. Mandibular fluoride content was recorded in 63 roe deer (33 males, 30 females) between 9 months and 10 years of age, taken from an area in SW Germany not exposed to increased fluoride deposition. 2. Bone fluoride level was positively correlated with age (t-test, P less than or equal to 0.001), the increase in concentration being higher in younger animals and declining in older deer. 3. In the sample studied, no significant sex specific difference in mean mandibular fluoride concentration was found (t-test, P greater than 0.05).     

A comparative study of the parasites in two populations of white-tailed deer

The study compares parasite prevalence in two geographically separated populations of white-tailed deer in central Pennsylvania. Differences in prevalence were found for certain of the parasites studied. Characteristics of curves comparing prevalence with host-age group, however, were remarkably similar for individual parasites from both populations. Prevalence increased with host age for certain species of parasite and decreased or remained constant for others. Some of the underlying biological properties of the infections which may be responsible for the characteristics of the age specific prevalence curves are discussed.     

Reproductive physiology in relation to deer management

One of the more important aspects of deer management is the regulation of the number of animals in the herd. It is the fertility and fecundity of the female, rather than the male, that affects the rate of increase and the number of female deer that affects the size of the population. The various parameters of reproductive physiology of female deer are discussed and the information available with regard to the species of deer occurring wild in Britain is reviewed and summarized. The time of year to cull deer and the importance of the female as well as the male for selection for breeding are briefly discussed.     

Teeth as indicators of age with special reference to Red deer (Cervus elaphus) of known age from Rhum

An experiment in land management and Red deer population control was begun by the Nature Conservancy on the Isle of Rhum, a National Nature Reserve off the west coast of Scotland, in 1957. To assess the results fully it has become necessary to determine the most suitable ageing method which can be applied to the material, which has accumulated since from the annual deer culls and natural deaths.
Using mandibles only from individuals, whose age was certainly known by marking at birth, and which, in most cases were shot by mistake during subsequent annual culling operations, four different techniques were critically tested. These comprised correlating various combinations of jaw and tooth measurements with age, examining the nature and quantity of secondary dentine deposited within the crown of the first incisor, interpreting the number of layers in the pad of cementum beneath the crown of the first molar, and assessing the stages reached in tooth replacement, eruption and wear. Of these various methods, ageing by tooth replacement, eruption and wear proved the most reliable.     

Density-dependent responses of fawn cohort body mass in two contrasting roe deer populations

We investigated the influence of population density on juvenile body mass in two contrasting roe deer populations, in Sweden (Bogesund) and France (Chizé), in which density was monitored for ≥15 years. We investigated the effect of population density and climatic conditions on cohort performance. We predicted that: (1) body mass of growing fawns should be sensitive to environmental changes, showing marked between-year variation (i.e., cohort effects), (2) fawns in the less productive (weakly seasonal, weakly predictable summer weather) habitat of Chizé should show stronger density-dependent responses due to more severe food competition during summer than fawns in the more productive (markedly seasonal, moderately predictable summer weather) habitat of Bogesund, and (3) fawns at Bogesund should be heavier both in absolute terms and relative to their size than their conspecifics in Chizé due to a higher degree of fat accumulation in northern environments. In both study sites we found marked cohort variation and clear effects of density, with body mass varying by as much as 29% over years. While neither summer nor winter climate influenced fawn body mass at Bogesund, fawns tended to be lighter after summers with high temperatures at Chizé. In addition, fawns were heavier after acorn mast years experienced in utero at Bogesund. As expected, the strength of the density-dependent response of fawn body mass was greater at Chizé than at Bogesund. For a given density, male fawns were consistently heavier than females in both sites. Lastly, both sexes at Bogesund had higher absolute body mass and were larger for a given body size than in Chizé. Our results clearly demonstrate that absolute density is a poor predictor of roe deer performance and supports the view that habitat quality has an overwhelming importance for determining fawn body mass in roe deer populations.     

Winter body condition in relation to age,sex and plumage ornamentation in a migratory songbird

Winter body condition may play important roles in the life history of migratory birds, but it is difficult to estimate. We used the growth rate of winter‐grown tail feathers of Collared Flycatchers Ficedula albicollis as an indicator of winter body condition, comparing this trait between age classes and sexes and relating it to plumage ornamentation (forehead and wing patch sizes). Adults and males were in better nutritional condition during winter, as indicated by their faster tail feather growth rates, than were yearlings and females, respectively, which could indicate differences in individual quality and foraging ability with age, or age‐ and sex‐related winter habitat segregation. However, feather growth rate was related neither to the size of the winter‐grown forehead patch nor to the size of the summer‐grown wing patch, suggesting weak condition‐dependence for the winter‐grown ornament and complex life‐history consequences for the summer‐grown ornament.     

The composition of the autumn and winter diets in two Polish populations of fallow deer

The diets of fallow deerDama dama (Linnaeus, 1758) were analysed on the basis of the rumen contents of 69 individuals harvested between October and January in two areas of Poland: Iława, where animals are fed artificially in winter and Pszczyna, where almost no winter feeding is applied. The composition of the diet was found to be similar in both areas, with graminoids — as the staple food — accounting for 43.1% in Iława and 45.9% in Pszczyna. Further similarities between the areas were noted in regard to the other main foods eaten, ie the foliage of broadleaved deciduous trees and Scots pine, as well as forbs. Together, these four categories of food accounted for 73.1% and 73.0% of the diet in Iława and Pszczyna, respectively. Browse and bark were eaten in very small amounts, an observation suggesting that the contribution made by fallow deer to overall cervid-induced damage at least in some Polish forests is relatively small. Sample size limitations confined analysis of monthly food composition to the data from Iława only. These revealed graminoids as the major food each month, though shares of the diet ranged between 56.4% in November and 30.3% in January. Maximum levels of consumption of broadleaved deciduous foliage (21.9%) and forbs (10.3%) were recorded in October, and afterwards decreased. In turn, the role of pine foliage share increased from October (7.8%) through January (14.5%). The maximum availability of artificial forage occurred in January and its share in the diet was then as high as 21.2%.     

Simultaneous pituitary-gonadal recrudescence in two Corsican populations of male blue tits with asynchronous breeding dates

Animal populations living in geographically variable environments respond to different selection pressures. The adaptive character of the responses to environmental information determines the degree of synchrony of the breeding period with local optimal conditions. An example is provided by two populations of Mediterranean blue tits (Parus caeruleus) in Corsica, breeding in different habitats, with a 1-month difference in the onset of egg laying. This difference in the onset of lay is supposed to be adaptive because, although chicks from both populations are raised mostly on caterpillars, the timing of the appearance of caterpillars is earlier for populations of tits associated with deciduous oak trees than those associated with evergreen oak trees. Here, we show that, despite the difference in the timing of egg laying, males from these two populations start seasonal hypothalamo-hypophysial-testicular development at approximately the same time, in late winter. Specifically, the vernal recrudescence of brain GnRH-I perikarya and fibers, testes volume and song activity began around the same dates and proceeded at the same pace in late winter in both populations. Plasma testosterone and LH levels displayed seasonal variations that were shifted by less than 2 weeks compared to the 1-month difference in egg laying periods. We hypothesize that the strong selection pressures on these two populations to adapt the timing of their breeding seasons to their local environment may have acted mostly on the female egg laying dates, and not so much on the initiation and rate of seasonal recrudescence of the hypothalamo-hypophysial-testicular activity in males.