GTP-binding mutants of rab1 and rab2 are potent inhibitors of vesicular transport from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi complex

We have examined the role of ras-related rab proteins in transport from the ER to the Golgi complex in vivo using a vaccinia recombinant T7 RNA polymerase virus to express site-directed rab mutants. These mutations are within highly conserved domains involved in guanine nucleotide binding and hydrolysis found in ras and all members of the ras superfamily. Substitutions in the GTP-binding domains of rab1a and rab1b (equivalent to the ras 17N and 116I mutants) resulted in proteins which were potent trans dominant inhibitors of vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV-G protein) transport between the ER and cis Golgi complex. Immunofluorescence analysis indicated that expression of rab1b121I prevented delivery of VSV-G protein to the Golgi stack, which resulted in VSV-G protein accumulation in pre-Golgi punctate structures. Mutants in guanine nucleotide exchange or hydrolysis of the rab2 protein were also strong trans dominant transport inhibitors. Analogous mutations in rab3a, rab5, rab6, and H-ras did not inhibit processing of VSV-G to the complex, sialic acid containing form diagnostic of transport to the trans Golgi compartment. We suggest that at least three members of the rab family (rab1a, rab1b, and rab2) use GTP hydrolysis to regulate components of the transport machinery involved in vesicle traffic between early compartments of the secretory pathway.     

A GDP-bound of rab1 inhibits protein export from the endoplasmic reticulum and transport between Golgi compartments

Rab1 is a small GTPase regulating vesicular traffic between early compartments of the secretory pathway. To explore the role of rab1 we have analyzed the function of a mutant (rab1a[S25N]) containing a substitution which perturbs Mg2+ coordination and reduces the affinity for GTP, resulting in a form which is likely to be restricted to the GDP-bound state. The rab1a(S25N) mutant led to a marked reduction in protein export from the ER in vivo and in vitro, indicating that a guanine nucleotide exchange protein (GEP) is critical for the recruitment of rab1 during vesicle budding. The mutant protein required posttranslational isoprenylation for inhibition and behaved as a competitive inhibitor of wild-type rab1 function. Both rab1a and rab1b (92% identity) were able to antagonize the inhibitory activity of the rab1a(S25N) mutant, suggesting that these two isoforms are functionally interchangeable. The rab1 mutant also inhibited transport between Golgi compartments and resulted in an apparent loss of the Golgi apparatus, suggesting that Golgi integrity is coupled to rab1 function in vesicular traffic.     

Rab11 and Actin Cytoskeleton Participate in Giardia lamblia Encystation,Guiding the Specific Vesicles to the Cyst Wall

Background

Giardia passes through two stages during its life cycle, the trophozoite and the cyst. Cyst formation involves the synthesis of cyst wall proteins (CWPs) and the transport of CWPs into encystation-specific vesicles (ESVs). Active vesicular trafficking is essential for encystation, but the molecular machinery driving vesicular trafficking remains unknown. The Rab proteins are involved in the targeting of vesicles to several intracellular compartments through their association with cytoskeletal motor proteins.

Methodology and Principal Findings

In this study, we found a relationship between Rab11 and the actin cytoskeleton in CWP1 transport. Confocal microscopy showed Rab11 was distributed throughout the entire trophozoite, while in cysts it was translocated to the periphery of the cell, where it colocalized with ESVs and microfilaments. Encystation was also accompanied by changes in rab11 mRNA expression. To evaluate the role of microfilaments in encystation, the cells were treated with latrunculin A. Scanning electron microscopy showed this treatment resulted in morphological damages to encysted parasites. The intensity of fluorescence-labeled Rab11 and CWP1 in ESVs and cyst walls was reduced, and rab11 and cwp1 mRNA levels were down-regulated. Furthermore, knocking down Rab11 with a hammerhead ribozyme resulted in an up to 80% down-regulation of rab11 mRNA. Although this knockdown did not appear lethal for trophozoites and did not affect cwp1 expression during the encystation, confocal images showed CWP1 was redistributed throughout the cytosol.

Conclusions and Significance

Our results indicate that Rab11 participates in the early and late encystation stages by regulating CWP1 localization and the actin-mediated transport of ESVs towards the periphery. In addition, alterations in the dynamics of actin affected rab11 and cwp1 expression. Our results provide new information about the molecules involved in Giardia encystation and suggest that Rab11 and actin may be useful as novel pharmacological targets.     

Rab3a is involved in transport of synaptic vesicles to the active zone in mouse brain nerve terminals

The rab family of GTP-binding proteins regulates membrane transport between intracellular compartments. The major rab protein in brain, rab3A, associates with synaptic vesicles. However, rab3A was shown to regulate the fusion probability of synaptic vesicles, rather than their transport and docking. We tested whether rab3A has a transport function by analyzing synaptic vesicle distribution and exocytosis in rab3A null-mutant mice. Rab3A deletion did not affect the number of vesicles and their distribution in resting nerve terminals. The secretion response upon a single depolarization was also unaffected. In normal mice, a depolarization pulse in the presence of Ca(2+) induces an accumulation of vesicles close to and docked at the active zone (recruitment). Rab3A deletion completely abolished this activity-dependent recruitment, without affecting the total number of vesicles. Concomitantly, the secretion response in the rab3A-deficient terminals recovered slowly and incompletely after exhaustive stimulation, and the replenishment of docked vesicles after exhaustive stimulation was also impaired in the absence of rab3A. These data indicate that rab3A has a function upstream of vesicle fusion in the activity-dependent transport of synaptic vesicles to and their docking at the active zone.     

Rab3 Proteins Involved in Vesicle Biogenesis and Priming in Embryonic Mouse Chromaffin Cells

The four Rab3 paralogs A–D are involved in exocytosis, but their mechanisms of action are hard to study due to functional redundancy. Here, we used a quadruple Rab3 knockout (KO) (rab3a, rab3b, rab3c, rab3d null, here denoted as ABCD^?/?) mouse line to investigate Rab3 function in embryonic mouse adrenal chromaffin cells by electron microscopy and electrophysiological measurements. We show that in cells from ABCD^?/? animals large dense‐core vesicles (LDCVs) are less abundant, while the number of morphologically docked granules is normal. By capacitance measurements, we show that deletion of Rab3s reduces the size of the releasable vesicle pools but does not alter their fusion kinetics, consistent with an altered function in vesicle priming. The sustained release component has a sigmoid shape in ABCD^?/? cells when normalized to the releasable pool size, indicating that vesicle priming follows at a higher rate after an initial delay. Rescue experiments showed that short‐term (4–6 h) overexpression of Rab3A or Rab3C suffices to rescue vesicle priming and secretion, but it does not restore the number of secretory vesicles. We conclude that Rab3 proteins play two distinct stimulating roles for LDCV fusion in embryonic chromaffin cells, by facilitating vesicle biogenesis and stabilizing the primed vesicle state.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Sultr4;1</Emphasis> mutant seeds of Arabidopsis have an enhanced sulphate content and modified proteome suggesting metabolic adaptations to altered sulphate compartmentalization

Background  

Sulphur is an essential macronutrient needed for the synthesis of many cellular components. Sulphur containing amino acids and stress response-related compounds, such as glutathione, are derived from reduction of root-absorbed sulphate. Sulphate distribution in cell compartments necessitates specific transport systems. The low-affinity sulphate transporters SULTR4;1 and SULTR4;2 have been localized to the vacuolar membrane, where they may facilitate sulphate efflux from the vacuole.     

Characterization of Yeast Extracellular Vesicles: Evidence for the Participation of Different Pathways of Cellular Traffic in Vesicle Biogenesis

Background

Extracellular vesicles in yeast cells are involved in the molecular traffic across the cell wall. In yeast pathogens, these vesicles have been implicated in the transport of proteins, lipids, polysaccharide and pigments to the extracellular space. Cellular pathways required for the biogenesis of yeast extracellular vesicles are largely unknown.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We characterized extracellular vesicle production in wild type (WT) and mutant strains of the model yeast Saccharomyces cerevisiae using transmission electron microscopy in combination with light scattering analysis, lipid extraction and proteomics. WT cells and mutants with defective expression of Sec4p, a secretory vesicle-associated Rab GTPase essential for Golgi-derived exocytosis, or Snf7p, which is involved in multivesicular body (MVB) formation, were analyzed in parallel. Bilayered vesicles with diameters at the 100–300 nm range were found in extracellular fractions from yeast cultures. Proteomic analysis of vesicular fractions from the cells aforementioned and additional mutants with defects in conventional secretion pathways (sec1-1, fusion of Golgi-derived exocytic vesicles with the plasma membrane; bos1-1, vesicle targeting to the Golgi complex) or MVB functionality (vps23, late endosomal trafficking) revealed a complex and interrelated protein collection. Semi-quantitative analysis of protein abundance revealed that mutations in both MVB- and Golgi-derived pathways affected the composition of yeast extracellular vesicles, but none abrogated vesicle production. Lipid analysis revealed that mutants with defects in Golgi-related components of the secretory pathway had slower vesicle release kinetics, as inferred from intracellular accumulation of sterols and reduced detection of these lipids in vesicle fractions in comparison with WT cells.

Conclusions/Significance

Our results suggest that both conventional and unconventional pathways of secretion are required for biogenesis of extracellular vesicles, which demonstrate the complexity of this process in the biology of yeast cells.     

Tbx1 and Brn4 regulate retinoic acid metabolic genes during cochlear morphogenesis

Background  

In vertebrates, the inner ear is comprised of the cochlea and vestibular system, which develop from the otic vesicle. This process is regulated via inductive interactions from surrounding tissues. Tbx1, the gene responsible for velo-cardio-facial syndrome/DiGeorge syndrome in humans, is required for ear development in mice. Tbx1 is expressed in the otic epithelium and adjacent periotic mesenchyme (POM), and both of these domains are required for inner ear formation. To study the function of Tbx1 in the POM, we have conditionally inactivated Tbx1 in the mesoderm while keeping expression in the otic vesicle intact.     

Hydrophobic profiles of the tail anchors in SLMAP dictate subcellular targeting

Background  

Tail anchored (TA) membrane proteins target subcellular structures via a C-terminal transmembrane domain and serve prominent roles in membrane fusion and vesicle transport. Sarcolemmal Membrane Associated Protein (SLMAP) possesses two alternatively spliced tail anchors (TA1 or TA2) but their specificity of subcellular targeting remains unknown.     

Multiple GTP-binding proteins regulate vesicular transport from the ER to Golgi membranes

Using indirect immunofluorescence we have examined the effects of reagents which inhibit the function of ras-related rab small GTP-binding proteins and heterotrimeric G alpha beta gamma proteins in ER to Golgi transport. Export from the ER was inhibited by an antibody towards rab1B and an NH2-terminal peptide which inhibits ARF function (Balch, W. E., R. A. Kahn, and R. Schwaninger. 1992. J. Biol. Chem. 267:13053-13061), suggesting that both of these small GTP-binding proteins are essential for the transport vesicle formation. Export from the ER was also potently inhibited by mastoparan, a peptide which mimics G protein binding regions of seven transmembrane spanning receptors activating and uncoupling heterotrimeric G proteins from their cognate receptors. Consistent with this result, purified beta gamma subunits inhibited the export of VSV-G from the ER suggesting an initial event in transport vesicle assembly was regulated by a heterotrimeric G protein. In contrast, incubation in the presence of GTP gamma S or AIF(3-5) resulted in the accumulation of transported protein in different populations of punctate pre-Golgi intermediates distributed throughout the cytoplasm of the cell. Finally, a peptide which is believed to antagonize the interaction of rab proteins with putative downstream effector molecules inhibited transport at a later step preceding delivery to the cis Golgi compartment, similar to the site of accumulation of transported protein in the absence of NSF or calcium (Plutner, H., H. W. Davidson, J. Saraste, and W. E. Balch. 1992. J. Cell Biol. 119:1097-1116). These results are consistent with the hypothesis that multiple GTP-binding proteins including a heterotrimeric G protein(s), ARF and rab1 differentially regulate steps in the transport of protein between early compartments of the secretory pathway. The concept that G protein-coupled receptors gate the export of protein from the ER is discussed.     

Knockdown of Rab5a expression decreases cancer cell motility and invasion through integrin-mediated signaling pathway

Background  

Rab GTPases function as modulators in intracellular transport. Rab5a, a member of the Rab subfamily of small GTPases, is an important regulator of vesicle traffic from the plasma membrane to early endosomes. Recent findings have reported that Rab5a gene was involved in the progression of cancer. In the present study, we investigated the effect of Rab5a on cervical cancer invasion and metastasis and the molecular mechanism underlying the involvement of Rab5a.     

Rab1b regulates vesicular transport between the endoplasmic reticulum and successive Golgi compartments

We report an essential role for the ras-related small GTP-binding protein rab1b in vesicular transport in mammalian cells. mAbs detect rab1b in both the ER and Golgi compartments. Using an assay which reconstitutes transport between the ER and the cis-Golgi compartment, we find that rab1b is required during an initial step in export of protein from the ER. In addition, it is also required for transport of protein between successive cis- and medial-Golgi compartments. We suggest that rab1b may provide a common link between upstream and downstream components of the vesicular fission and fusion machinery functioning in early compartments of the secretory pathway.     

Rab11 is required for epithelial cell viability, terminal differentiation, and suppression of tumor-like growth in the Drosophila egg chamber

Background

The Drosophila egg chamber provides an excellent system in which to study the specification and differentiation of epithelial cell fates because all of the steps, starting with the division of the corresponding stem cells, called follicle stem cells, have been well described and occur many times over in a single ovary.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here we investigate the role of the small Rab11 GTPase in follicle stem cells (FSCs) and in their differentiating daughters, which include main body epithelial cells, stalk cells and polar cells. We show that rab11-null FSCs maintain their ability to self renew, even though previous studies have shown that FSC self renewal is dependent on maintenance of E-cadherin-based intercellular junctions, which in many cell types, including Drosophila germline stem cells, requires Rab11. We also show that rab11-null FSCs give rise to normal numbers of cells that enter polar, stalk, and epithelial cell differentiation pathways, but that none of the cells complete their differentiation programs and that the epithelial cells undergo premature programmed cell death. Finally we show, through the induction of rab11-null clones at later points in the differentiation program, that Rab11 suppresses tumor-like growth of epithelial cells. Thus, rab11-null epithelial cells arrest differentiation early, assume an aberrant cell morphology, delaminate from the epithelium, and invade the neighboring germline cyst. These phenotypes are associated with defects in E-cadherin localization and a general loss of cell polarity.

Conclusions/Significance

While previous studies have revealed tumor suppressor or tumor suppressor-like activity for regulators of endocytosis, our study is the first to identify such activity for regulators of endocytic recycling. Our studies also support the recently emerging view that distinct mechanisms regulate junction stability and plasticity in different tissues.     

The outer membrane protein Omp35 affects the reduction of Fe(III), nitrate,and fumarate by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Shewanella oneidensis</Emphasis> MR-1

Background  

Shewanella oneidensis MR-1 uses several electron acceptors to support anaerobic respiration including insoluble species such as iron(III) and manganese(IV) oxides, and soluble species such as nitrate, fumarate, dimethylsulfoxide and many others. MR-1 has complex branched electron transport chains that include components in the cytoplasmic membrane, periplasm, and outer membrane (OM). Previous studies have implicated a role for anaerobically upregulated OM electron transport components in the use of insoluble electron acceptors, and have suggested that other OM components may also contribute to insoluble electron acceptor use. In this study, the role for an anaerobically upregulated 35-kDa OM protein (Omp35) in the use of anaerobic electron acceptors was explored.     

Regulatory roles of phosphoinositides in membrane trafficking and their potential impact on cell-wall synthesis and re-modelling

Background

Plant cell walls are complex matrices of carbohydrates and proteins that control cell morphology and provide protection and rigidity for the plant body. The construction and maintenance of this intricate system involves the delivery and recycling of its components through a precise balance of endomembrane trafficking, which is controlled by a plethora of cell signalling factors. Phosphoinositides (PIs) are one class of signalling molecules with diverse roles in vesicle trafficking and cytoskeleton structure across different kingdoms. Therefore, PIs may also play an important role in the assembly of plant cell walls.

Scope

The eukaryotic PI pathway is an intricate network of different lipids, which appear to be divided in different pools that can partake in vesicle trafficking or signalling. Most of our current understanding of how PIs function in cell metabolism comes from yeast and mammalian systems; however, in recent years significant progress has been made towards a better understanding of the plant PI system. This review examines the current state of knowledge of how PIs regulate vesicle trafficking and their potential influence on plant cell-wall architecture. It considers first how PIs are formed in plants and then examines their role in the control of vesicle trafficking. Interactions between PIs and the actin cytoskeleton and small GTPases are also discussed. Future challenges for research are suggested.     

Rab7: NMR and kinetics analysis of intact and C-terminal truncated constructs

Rab proteins are a family of ˜25kD ras-related GTPases which are associated with distinct intracellular membranes where they control vesicle traffic between intracellular compartments. The late-endosomal rab protein rab7_1–207, (lacking only the C-terminal lipids of the native molecule) and three C-terminal truncated constructs rab7_1–202, rab7_1–197and rab7_1–182were purified using an E. coli expression system. The C-terminal tail region of rab proteins is of special interest because it is thought to target rab proteins to particular intracellular membranes. A comparison of TOCSY-NMR spectra from intact rab7_1–207and the tail-less construct rab7_1–182suggested that much of the C-terminal tail is flexible in solution. The GTP hydrolysis, and GDP association and dissociation rates for all the truncated and intact constructs were similar, showing that the tail region of rab7_1–207has little influence on the hydrolysis and exchange rates of the nucleotide. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Rab7: Crystallization of intact and C-terminal truncated constructs complexed with GDP and GppNHp

The GTP/GDP conformational switch of members of the rab family of ras-related GTP-ases control specific intracellular vesicle transport pathways. We report the crystallization of the late-endosomal rab protein rab7, in both GTP and GDP conformations. X-ray data from crystals of rab7_1–207GppNHp (i.e., intact rab7, without C-terminal bound lipid, complexed with a non-hydrolysable GTP analog), rab7_1–197GppNHp and rab7_1–197GDP were collected to 1.9Å (0°C), 1.76Å (100°K) and 1.75Å (100°K) respectively. Rab7-GDP crystals diffract to at least 1.35Å. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Function2Gene: A gene selection tool to increase the power of genetic association studies by utilizing public databases and expert knowledge

Background  

Many common disorders have multiple genetic components which convey increased susceptibility. SNPs have been used to identify genetic components which are associated with a disease. Unfortunately, many studies using these methods suffer from low reproducibility due to lack of power.     

Beta-COP is essential for transport of protein from the endoplasmic reticulum to the Golgi in vitro

Using a novel in vitro assay which allows us to distinguish vesicle budding from subsequent targeting and fusion steps, we provide the first biological evidence that beta-COP, a component of non-clathrin- coated vesicles believed to mediate intraGolgi transport, is essential for transport of protein from the ER to the cis-Golgi compartment. Incubation in the presence of beta-COP specific antibodies and F(ab) fragments prevents the exit of vesicular stomatitis virus glycoprotein (VSV-G) from the ER. These results demonstrate that beta-COP is required for the assembly of coat complexes mediating vesicle budding. Fractionation of rat liver cytosol revealed that a major biologically active form of beta-COP was found in a high molecular pool (> 1,000 kD) distinct from coatomer and which promoted efficient vesicle budding from the ER. Surprisingly, rab1B could be quantitatively coprecipitated with this beta-COP containing complex and was also essential for function. We suggest that beta-COP functions in an early step during vesicle formation and that rab1B may be recruited as a component of a precoat complex which participates in the export of protein from the ER via vesicular carriers.     

Requirement of nucleotide exchange factor for Ypt1 GTPase mediated protein transport

Small GTPases of the rab family are involved in the regulation of vesicular transport. It is believed that cycling between the GTP- and GDP-bound forms, and accessory factors regulating this cycling are crucial for rab function. However, an essential role for rab nucleotide exchange factors has not yet been demonstrated. In this report we show the requirement of nucleotide exchange factor activity for Ypt1 GTPase mediated protein transport. The Ypt1 protein, a member of the rab family, plays a role in targeting vesicles to the acceptor compartment and is essential for the first two steps of the yeast secretory pathway. We use two YPT1 dominant mutations that contain alterations in a highly conserved GTP-binding domain, N121I and D124N. YPT1-D124N is a novel mutation that encodes a protein with nucleotide specificity modified from guanine to xanthine. This provides a tool for the study of an individual rab GTPase in crude extracts: a xanthosine triphosphate (XTP)-dependent conditional dominant mutation. Both mutations confer growth inhibition and a block in protein secretion when expressed in vivo. The purified mutant proteins do not bind either GDP or GTP. Moreover, they completely inhibit the ability of the exchange factor to stimulate nucleotide exchange for wild type Ypt1 protein, and are potent inhibitors of ER to Golgi transport in vitro at the vesicle targeting step. The inhibitory effects of the Ypt1-D124N mutant protein on both nucleotide exchange activity and protein transport in vitro can be relieved by XTP, indicating that it is the nucleotide-free form of the mutant protein that is inhibitory. These results suggest that the dominant mutant proteins inhibit protein transport by sequestering the exchange factor from the wild type Ypt1 protein, and that this factor has an essential role in vesicular transport.