基于灰色关联的苗药红禾麻总黄酮含量影响因子分析

采用Al Cl3比色法对苗药红禾麻42个居群中的总黄酮含量进行分析测定,并用土壤养分测定仪测定对应产地土壤中的铵态氮、速效磷、有效钾、p H值和水分,通过向距产地较近的气象部门查询和以全球卫星定位系统GPS、海拔表等测定地理气候因子,结合42个居群红禾麻ISSR遗传多样性分析结果,运用灰色关联度分析法对红禾麻不同种质资源药材中总黄酮的含量与各影响因子进行相关性分析。结果表明:42个红禾麻不同种质资源药材总黄酮含量为0.42%~2.16%,平均加样回收率为97.86%,RSD为1.5%;环境因子和遗传因子中与总黄酮含量关联度较大的因素分别为无霜期和Shannon信息指数I,而各影响因子与总黄酮含量的关联度中,以Shannon信息指数I(r=1.03)最大,土壤p H(r=0.49)最小,表明遗传因子对红禾麻药材总黄酮含量的影响大于环境因子。该研究结果为红禾麻药材优良种质资源筛选及野生变家种研究提供了依据。     

Synergistic or Antagonistic Effect of MTE plus TF or Icariin from <Emphasis Type="Italic">Epimedium koreanum</Emphasis> on the Proliferation and Differentiation of Primary Osteoblasts In Vitro

3-(4,5-Dimethylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyl tetrazolium bromide test and alkaline phosphatase activity assay were employed to assess the effects of mixed trace elements including Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mn²⁺ plus total flavonoids or icariin from Epimedium koreanum on the proliferation and differentiation of primary osteoblasts in vitro. The results indicated that icariin (0.1, 1, and 10 μmol/L) and total flavonoids (0.06, 0.6, and 6 μg/mL) inhibited the proliferation and promoted the differentiation of primary osteoblasts. Mixed trace elements including Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mn²⁺ (0.1, 1, and 10 μmol/L) inhibited the proliferation and promoted the differentiation at 0.1 and 1 μmol/L, but inhibited the differentiation at 10 μmol/L. The effects of mixed trace elements including Zn²⁺, Ca²⁺, and Mn²⁺ plus total flavonoids or icariin from E. koreanum on the proliferation and differentiation of primary osteoblasts in vitro are complicated, and both synergistic and antagonistic effects are generated. The results suggest that there may be a potential cooperative action between flavonoids and trace metal elements on the proliferation and differentiation of primary osteoblasts by forming metal complexes. The combination model between flavonoids and trace metal elements is a pivotal factor for switching the biological effects from toxicity to activity, from damage to protection.     

Differential abundance and core members of the bacterial community associated with wild male Zeugodacus cucurbitae fruit flies (Insecta: Tephritidae) from three geographical regions of Southeast Asia

Zeugodacus cucurbitae (Coquillet) is one of the most significant and widespread tephritid pest species of agricultural crops. This study reports the bacterial communities associated with Z. cucurbitae from three geographical regions in Southeast Asia (Thailand, Peninsular Malaysia, and Sarawak). The bacterial microbiota were investigated by targeted 16S rRNA gene (V3–V4 region) sequencing using the Illumina Mi-Seq platform. At 97% similarity and filtering at 0.001%, there were seven bacterial phyla and unassigned bacteria, comprising 11 classes, 23 orders, 39 families and 67 genera. The bacterial diversity and richness varied within and among the samples from the three geographical regions. Five phyla were detected for the Sarawak sample, and six each for the Thailand and Peninsular Malaysia samples. Four phyla—Actinobacteria, Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Proteobacteria—were represented in all the fruit fly specimens, forming the core members of the bacterial community. Proteobacteria was the predominant phylum, followed by Bacteroidetes, Firmicutes, and Actinobacteria. Fifty-three genera were represented in the Thailand sample, 56 in the Peninsular Malaysia sample, and 55 in the Sarawak sample. Forty-two genera were present in all the three geographical regions. The predominant core members were order Enterobacteriales (Proeteobacteria), and family Enterobacteriaceae (Enterobacteriales). Klebsiella (Enterobacteriaceae) was the predominant genus and K. oxytoca the predominant species with all specimens having?>?10% relative abundance. The results indicate the presence of a great diversity as well as core members of the bacterial community associated with different populations of Z. cucurbitae.

     

Ultrastructural effects of trace elements and environmental pollution in Italian “Triangle of Death” on Pseudevernia furfuracea (L.) Zopf

Abstract

The lichen Pseudevernia furfuracea was exposed to environmental trace elements in the district of Acerra (province of Naples, southern Italy), one of the points forming Italy's “Triangle of Death”. P. furfuracea thalli were exposed in bags at different sites for 6 months, periodically collected and examined by transmission electron microscopy (TEM) to assess ultrastructural changes. An our earlier study demonstrated that these exposed lichens were strongly contaminated by trace elements (Sorbo S, Aprile G, Strumia S, Castaldo Cobianchi R, Leone A, et al. 2008. Trace element accumulation in P. furfuracea (L.) Zopf exposed in Italy's so-called Triangle of Death. Sci Total Environ 407: 647–654.). The algal cells were more affected than the fungal symbiont. Exposition at urban sites gave the most frequent changes. Four trace elements (Cd, Pb, Cu and Zn) were used to study the effects of ultrastructural trace element both in field and in vitro treatments. The lichen developed comparable ultrastructural changes when exposed to different trace elements and the changes were not specific to the treatment used (lichen bag exposition, in field and in vitro treatments). The in vitro treatment gave the highest frequency of damage at all time points. X-ray TEM microanalysis revealed trace elements inside the cell walls and the cytoplasmic vesicles of the lichens cultured with the trace elements; this localization is probably related to tolerance mechanisms.     

Comparison of Chemical Composition in Tuber aestivum Vittad. of Different Geographical Origin

Truffles are prized and nutrition‐rich edible hypogeous fungi. The aim of this study was a comprehensive investigation of chemical composition of Burgundy truffle (Tuber aestivum Vittad .). We tried to answer the question: what is the impact of the environment on the truffle quality. To know the nutritional value of Burgundy truffle we compared lipids, proteins, saccharides, polyphenolics, flavonoids, total sterols, ergosterol, volatile flavour and aroma compounds content in fruit bodies of the fungus collected in three different geographical regions, i.e., Poland, Slovakia, and Italy. A comparison of the above mentioned compounds is especially interesting due to environmental and climatic differences among the studied geographical regions. Results revealed that fruit bodies of T. aestivum from Poland and Slovakia possessed nearly similar content of proteins, total sterols, and saccharides. The fruiting bodies from Italy contained significantly larger amounts of most of the investigated compounds. In turn, Polish specimens had higher content of lipids and polyphenolics than Slovak and Italian ones. We have found higher similarity of volatile compounds composition between Polish and Italian specimens than those of Polish and Slovak origin.     

Total soluble protein profiles of Beauveria bassiana and their relationship with virulence against Helicoverpa armigera

Intracellular total soluble proteins of Beauveria bassiana are believed to play an important role in virulence against insect hosts. Thirty B. bassiana isolates collected from different geographical regions and host ranges were characterised by total soluble proteins present in cells, using the SDS–PAGE technique to differentiate the isolates based on virulence and host insect origin. In vitro analysis of total soluble protein profiles of 30 isolates was studied to understand the relationship of isolates with their host of origin and virulence against Helicoverpa armigera. There was a positive relationship between virulence and host origin. All the non-virulent isolates are grouped together. Similarly, highly virulent isolates against H. armigera were grouped together. The relationship between total soluble proteins and pathogenicity was positively correlated. Thirty isolates shared only 22% similarity in their protein profiles.     

不同生态环境条件沙生植物沙鞭的结实研究

为了阐明不同生态环境条件下沙生植物沙鞭的结实规律,该文对沙鞭137个种群结实情况进行了实地观察,发现沙鞭种子的结实情况可被划分为无种子、种子饱满和种子不饱满3种类型;在此基础上,该文采用聚类分析、Kruskal-Wallis检验和典范对应分析(CCA)等方法探究沙鞭种群结实情况与22个地理气候因子的相关性。结果表明:(1)沙鞭137个种群按照地理气候因子不同聚为3个组;(2) Kruskal-Wallis检验显示沙鞭3个组间种子结实情况差异不显著(P=0.269),即沙鞭种群间种子结实与其所处的地理气候因子无直接相关性;(3)典范对应分析(CCA)表明沙鞭种群间种子结实情况差异也不显著(P0.05),但地理气候因子与种子饱满度以及无种子特征具有显著相关性,其中海拔和降雨因子(bio12-bio19)与种子饱满度呈正相关,而经纬度和温度因子(bio4,bio7)与种子饱满度呈负相关,无种子特征仅与最湿季平均温度(bio8)呈正相关。地理气候因子对沙鞭天然种群有性繁殖(有种子)重要性高于无性繁殖(无种子),表明制约沙生植物沙鞭有性繁殖的环境因子复杂,其无性繁殖可能是种群数量稳定的适应性表现。     

Antioxidant,Anti‐inflammatory and Cytotoxic Activities of Polyphenols Extracted from Chroogomphus rutilus

Chroogomphus rutilus is a rare fungal species that grows under pine trees and is now widely used as a functional food and pharmaceutical product. However, the chemical constituents and biological activities of Chroogomphus rutilus have been relatively limited. The present study aimed at determining the total polyphenols and flavonoids contents, biological activities and main phenolic compounds of Chroogomphus rutilus from different geographical origins at the stipe and pileus. The results suggested that Chroogomphus rutilus polyphenol extracts revealed a higher antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, and cytotoxic activities, and there were significant differences between samples from different locations and regions. Correlation analysis showed that the contents of total polyphenols and flavonoids were significantly correlated with antioxidant and anti‐inflammatory activities. However, only the content of total flavonoids was significantly correlated with cytotoxicity, which means that the cytotoxicity of Chroogomphus rutilus polyphenol extracts may be regulated by flavonoids or other compounds. HPLC‐DAD analysis revealed that the main phenolic compound was protocatechuic acid, followed by baicalin, p‐hydroxyphenylacetic acid and p‐hydroxybenzoic acid, but comparing with the pileus extracts, the stipe extracts can be considered as a higher concentration of phenolic compounds. Therefore, antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory and cytotoxic activities of Chroogomphus rutilus polyphenol extracts could be due to the identified compounds. This study investigated a deep knowledge about the constituents and activities of Chroogomphus rutilus and provided the reference for its application in food and pharmaceutical.     

Soil respiration in an irrigated oasis agroecosystem: linking environmental controls with plant activities on hourly,daily and monthly timescales

Aim

To investigate the responses of different components of soil respiration to environmental factors at different timescales in a vineyard ecosystem.

Methods

The trenching method was used to separate total soil respiration (TSR) into autotrophic respiration (AR) and heterotrophic respiration (HR). Soil respiration rates were measured by an LI-8100 automated flux system.

Results

On the hourly scale, there were contrasting responses in TSR, HR and AR to soil temperature at 5 cm (ST₅), with clockwise hysteresis loop responses of TSR and HR to ST₅ but a counterclockwise hysteresis loop between AR and ST₅. The daily TSR didn’t exponentially response to ST₅ during the growing season. On the monthly scale, the relationship between TSR and ST₅ showed a counterclockwise hysteresis loop. Meanwhile, the diel respiration peak lagged the peak of gross primary productivity (GPP), but the monthly peak of TSR preceded the monthly peak of GPP. The daily TSR and the daily soil water content at 5 cm (SWC₅) in different months showed a quadratic relationship, but there was an exponential correlation between the monthly TSR and the monthly SWC₅.

Conclusions

The relationship between soil respiration and environmental factors derived for a specific timescale cannot be directly applied to other timescales.

     

Study of Zn,Cu and Pb content in plants and contaminated soils in Sardinia

Trace elements in soils exist as components of several different fractions. We have analyzed the correlation between total and extractable (EDTA, calcium chloride and deionized water) Zn, Pb and Cu concentrations in soils and the concentration of these elements in plant leaves. Soil and plant samples have been taken from Sulcis-Iglesiente (Sardinia), an area rich in mining tailings. This has made that the concentrations of the trace element under study in soils were varied. Three plants have been studied: Dittrichia viscosa, Cistus salviifolius, and Euphorbia pithyusa subsp. cupanii. Soil samples beneath each of them at depths of 0–30 and 30–60 cm have been considered. The highest concentration of trace elements in the leaves of the studied species has been found for Zn. The calcium carbonate content and the crystalline and amorphous forms of iron in the soil have determined the concentration of metal in plant leaves. The soil concentrations that have been found with the extraction methods are uncorrelated with Pb and Cu concentrations in plants, but Zn is correlated with the fraction extracted with EDTA and calcium chloride. The concentrations of trace metals in plants are most closely related to the soil contents of CaCO₃, electrical conductivity, Fe_ox, and Fe_dc.     

Molecular characterization of Rhizoctonia solani isolates the incitant of soybean root rot

Rhizoctonia solani isolates used in this investigation were identified as anastomosis-4 (AG-40), collected from different localities from Assiut governorate in Egypt. Pathogenicity test of seven isolates of R. solani was evaluated on soybean Giza 111 cultivar under greenhouse conditions. All tested isolates were able to infect soybean plants causing root rot with different degrees of severities, isolate No. 1, 2 and 3 showed significantly highest root rot severity, while isolate No. 5 gave the lowest percentage of root rot rating. The sodium dodecyl sulphate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis patterns were used to compare three isolates of R. solani. There are no variations among R. solani isolates except a few exceptions according to their protein patterns. DNA markers obtained from all isolates showed genetic similarity among different isolates obtained from different geographical regions barring few exceptions. Correlation between DNA patterns of R. solani isolates and their virulence was detected, but no correlation with anastomosis groups (AG).     

Assigning a Role to the Endogenous Phenolic Compounds on Adventitious Root Formation of Olive Stem Cuttings

The objective of this study was to role the effect of phenolic compounds on the rooting potential of leafy cuttings of the recalcitrant to root olive cultivar ‘Kalamata’ and the easy to root ‘Arbequina’. Subsamples of cuttings were taken for analysis before planting (day 0) in the mist system and during the early phases of rhizogenesis (EPR). ‘Kalamata’ presented higher initial (day 0) total phenols in summer and total o-diphenols in autumn and spring compared to ‘Arbequina’, while ‘Arbequina’ had significantly higher initial total flavonoids and flavanols in autumn. A positive correlation was found between initial total phenols and rooting ability of ‘Arbequina’. In ‘Kalamata’ a positive correlation was established between initial total o-diphenols and rooting percentage while total flavonoids were negatively correlated with rooting. Generally, total phenols, o-diphenols, flavanols and flavonoids did not differ between the two cultivars and their concentration reduced significantly 15 days after planting. Furthermore, ‘Arbequina’ presented higher initial tyrosol, chlorogenic acid, luteolin-7-glucoside, rutin, quercetin and luteolin in summer and autumn compared to ‘Kalamata’. The above phenolics were positively correlated with the rooting of ‘Arbequina’. Significant changes were observed in the concentration of the individual phenolics during the EPR, whereas chlorogenic acid, rutin, quercetin and luteolin concentration increased significantly from day 1 to 5. In conclusion, there is a clear relationship between the phenolic profile and adventitious rooting of the two olive cultivars and in fact chlorogenic acid and rutin can be proposed as olive rooting enhancers.

     

A survey of trace elements in pteridophytes

Concentration of 11 trace elements (Ca, Sc, Cr, Fe, Co, Zn, Rb, Cs, Ba, La, and Ce) in 96 pteridophytes (fern and fern ally species) was determined by instrumental neutron activation analysis to evaluate a concentration range for each element and also to find species characteristic in the uptake of trace elements. Asplenium trichomanes was found to accumulate Sc, Cr, and Co to the highest concentrations among 96 pteridophytes. The highest concentration of Ca and Zn was observed for Asplenium obscurum. The other Pteridophytes exhibited only one element whose concentration was the highest. A positive correlation was found between the concentrations of Fe and Sc, and also between the concentrations of Cr and Co. The remarkable accumulation of lanthanides (La and Ce) was observed mainly in diversifying genera (Polystichum and Dryopteris in Dryopteridaceae, Diplazium in Woodsiaceae, and Asplenium in Aspleniaceae).     

A systematic study of the polyphenolic composition of aqueous extracts deriving from several Cistus genus species: evolutionary relationship

Introduction – Cistaceae is a large family of shrubs widely spread over the Mediterranean area. It includes Helianthemum, Halimium and Cistus genus. Cistus genus contains approximately 20 species distributed in three subgenus. The essential oil of Cistus species has been thoroughly studied, but the polyphenolic composition of the aerial parts of the different Cistus species needs further characterisation. Objective – To perform a comparative analysis of the qualitative and quantitative polyphenolic composition of the aerial parts of the most commonly distributed Spanish Cistus species in order to find a relationship between chemotype and subgenus. Methodology – Thirteen aqueous extracts derived from 10 different Cistus species were analysed by using HPLC with diode array‐detection coupled to electrospray ion trap mass spectrometry technique (HPLC‐DAD‐ESI‐MS/MS). Their major compounds were identified and ellagitannins were quantified. Principal component analysis (PCA) was performed on the most relevant compounds to find out the statistical association between chemotype and variety. Results – Three main groups of compounds were found, i.e. ellagitannins, flavonoids and phenolic acids derivatives. The polyphenolic profile was specific for each species, although the abundance of some compounds also varied depending on the soil type. Whereas C. ladanifer, C. salviifolius, C. populifolius and C. libanotis were specially rich in ellagitannins, C. clusii, C. laurifolius and C. monspeliensis contained significant amounts of flavonoids and much less ellagitannins. In contrast, C. crispus, C. incanus and C. albidus showed a polyphenolic profile mostly based on flavonoids. PCA analysis showed a strong relationship between Cistus subgenus and its chemotype based on the most relevant water‐soluble polyphenolic compounds. Conclusions – Chemical composition of the leaves' aqueous extracts from plants belonging to the Cistus genus is strongly related to their subgenus, in agreement to previous taxonomical and phylogenetic divisions. In contrast, soil and climate are less influencing factors. Leucocistus and Halimioides subgenus showed a higher content in ellagitannins. However, Cistus subgenus had higher flavonoid content. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

Ecological disruption close to the Ordovician‐Silurian boundary

Following a long period of stability there was substantial ecological disruption in the late Ordovician, accompanied by widespread extinction. The ecological upheaval was spread over a period of time (1 My?) and varied in intensity between different groups.

The greatest change in brachiopod faunas occurred in the tropics, where there were widespread extinctions. In temperate regions the community structure, although disrupted, was not destroyed. The deep shelf associations (Benthic Assemblages 4–5) of the Rawtheyan persisted in an attenuated form into the Hirnantian when they were supplemented by genera of the ”Hirnantia fauna” and then became strongly re‐established in the Llandovery.

Trilobites, in contrast to brachiopods, suffered a worldwide extinction in the late Ashgill. Approximately 40% of trilobite genera became extinct at, or near, the Rawtheyan‐Hirnantian boundary.

Analysis of the distribution of Rawtheyan trilobite and brachiopod genera supports a correlation between geographical distribution and survival. Global range charts for brachiopod and trilobite genera, incorporating ecological and palaeogeographical data, have been compiled for this study.     

Strong genetic isolation despite wide distribution in a commercially exploited coastal shark

The common smoothhound, Mustelus mustelus, is an epibenthic species targeted by fisheries around the world driven by the increasing demand for shark products. Given the wide-spread occurrence of this species and corresponding lack of molecular data in many areas of said distribution, baseline molecular assessments of this commercially important shark may contribute to finer-scale analyses in areas in which this species is targeted. Therefore, population genetic analyses were conducted along the East Atlantic, from the Mediterranean Sea to the south-east coast of Africa, using microsatellite markers and the mitochondrial control region (mtCR). Overall, M. mustelus displayed low to moderate genetic diversity, with the Mediterranean populations appearing to exhibit the lowest mitochondrial diversity, and the west African populations displaying the lowest nuclear diversity. Microsatellite analysis indicated strong genetic differentiation between the three regions, with finer-scale population structure in each region, without correlation between genetic and geographical distance. For the mtCR sequences, a total of 18 haplotypes were identified, with a high degree of divergence discernable between the regions, largely in accordance with the microsatellite data. The study documents a remarkable level of population isolation across a vast area, suggesting little or no present-day connectivity among extant populations. The findings may serve as an essential baseline for global population management and commercial traceability of this threatened shark.

     

Chemical Composition and Antioxidant Activity of Tuber indicum from Different Geographical Regions of China

Tuber indicum, an endemic truffle species in eastern Asian, is an edible mushroom that is both an important export and widely distributed across China. Many existing studies on truffles focus on analyzing their taxonomy, population genetics, volatile organic compounds and artificial cultivation of the truffles, while little information is available about their nutrient composition and pharmacological activity, especially the relationship between chemical composition in ascocarps and their geographic distributions. This study presents a comprehensive investigation of the chemical composition of T. indicum, including free sugars, fatty acids, organic acids, phenolic acids, flavonoids, and polysaccharides, and tracks the antioxidant activity of T. indicum ascocarps collected from five geographical regions of four provinces in P. R. China: Hebei, Tibet, Yunnan, and Liaoning province. Our results showed that T. indicum collected from Qujing, Yunnan province, possessed the highest amount of free sugars (23.67 mg/g dw), total flavonoids (2.31 mg/g dw), total phenolics (4.46 mg/g dw) and the highest DPPH and ABTS radical‐scavenging activities. The amount of water‐soluble polysaccharides was the highest (115.24 mg/g dw) in ascocarps from Tibet, the total organic acids was the highest (22.073 mg/g dw) in ascocarps from Gongshan, and polyunsaturated fatty acids were most abundant in those from Hebei province. This study reveals that the quantity of chemical compounds in T. indicum varies by geographical origin. Detecting differences in chemical composition may provide important data for understanding the relationship between environmental factors and truffle formation, as well as quality evaluation of the commercial species T. indicum throughout China.     

Geographical range and host breadth of Sebacina orchid mycorrhizal fungi associating with Caladenia in south‐western Australia

Specialized mycorrhizal interactions have the potential to limit the geographical range of plant species and contribute to reproductive isolation. We investigated these predictions in Caladenia (Orchidaceae) from south‐western Australia, a group known to have specialized mycorrhizal associations with the genus Sebacina s.l. Sequencing of fungal isolates from 47 of the 136 species of Western Australian Caladenia was undertaken to resolve the geographical range and habitat preferences of mycorrhizal fungal operational taxonomic units (OTUs) and their host breadth in Caladenia. Eight different fungal OTUs were used by Caladenia, with the more frequently detected OTUs occurring in a wide range of habitats and geographical regions. Given the comparatively narrow geographical ranges of most Western Australian Caladenia taxa, this suggests that the geographical ranges of fungal OTUs are unlikely to limit the geographical range of Caladenia spp. Extensive sharing of fungal OTUs between closely related orchid species was detected, suggesting that in the main there is little potential for mycorrhizal fungi to contribute to reproductive isolation between Caladenia spp. Our data mostly support previous work suggesting high mycorrhizal specificity in Caladenia, but this may not be the case in all subgenera, highlighting that Caladenia may offer powerful opportunities for investigating the evolution of specialized mycorrhizal associations.     

Some observations on the trace element concentrations in human dental enamel

The concentration of trace elements has been measured for dental enamel from 86 healthy human teeth using particle-induced X-ray emission (PIXE). The majority of the teeth (n = 70) were collected from dentists in the county of Oxfordshire in the United Kingdom, although a smaller group (n = 16) were collected from Cornwall. The elements K, Ca, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, Sr, Pb, and Hg have been detected and statistically analyzed by grouping according to sex, age, and geographical location. The concentrations of Fe and Cu were found to be lower in the teeth from female donors (P < 5%) and are believed to result from the continued burden of blood loss during menstruation. Strong positive correlations (P < 0.1%) were found between Ca, Co, Ni, and Zn for all groups; these elements were also found to exhibit a negative correlation (P < 1%) with age for teeth from female donors. This is believed to be related to decalcification during the menopause. Pb was found to exhibit a positive correlation (P < 5%) with age for both sexes, and is believed to substitute for Ca in the Ca hydroxy apatite (HAP) within the dental enamel.     

Ricerche Sulla Istologia del Legno Secondario Delle Gymnospermae

Summary

The anatomy and histology of the secondary wood of Pinus halepensis Mill. has been studied.

The wood of Aleppo Pine does not differ from that of the other Conifers already investigated.

The tracheids shaw a strong dimorphism, with the presence of prevalently conducting elements and strongly mecanic ones.

In both spring and autumn woods the two tipes of elements are to be found, although in different proportions.

The best character to espress this dimorphism seems to be »trachcids length «.

The conducting elements are shorter, while the mecanic ones are longer.