Identification and Characterization of a Novel Intracellular Alkaline α-Amylase from the Hyperthermophilic Bacterium Thermotoga maritima MSB8

The gene for a novel α-amylase, designated AmyC, from the hyperthermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima was cloned and heterologously overexpressed in Escherichia coli. The putative intracellular enzyme had no amino acid sequence similarity to glycoside hydrolase family (GHF) 13 α-amylases, yet the range of substrate hydrolysis and the product profile clearly define the protein as an α-amylase. Based on sequence similarity AmyC belongs to a subgroup within GHF 57. On the basis of amino acid sequence similarity, Glu185 and Asp349 could be identified as the catalytic residues of AmyC. Using a 60-min assay, the maximum hydrolytic activity of the purified enzyme, which was dithiothreitol dependent, was found to be at 90°C. AmyC displayed a remarkably high pH optimum of pH 8.5 and an unusual sensitivity towards both ATP and EDTA.     

Enhancement of the Alcoholytic Activity of α-Amylase AmyA from Thermotoga maritima MSB8 (DSM 3109) by Site-Directed Mutagenesis

AmyA, an α-amylase from the hyperthermophilic bacterium Thermotoga maritima, is able to hydrolyze internal α-1,4-glycosidic bonds in various α-glucans at 85°C as the optimal temperature. Like other glycoside hydrolases, AmyA also catalyzes transglycosylation reactions, particularly when oligosaccharides are used as substrates. It was found that when methanol or butanol was used as the nucleophile instead of water, AmyA was able to catalyze alcoholysis reactions. This capability has been evaluated in the past for some α-amylases, with the finding that only the saccharifying fungal amylases from Aspergillus niger and from Aspergillus oryzae present measurable alcoholysis activity (R. I. Santamaria, G. Del Rio, G. Saab, M. E. Rodriguez, X. Soberon, and A. Lopez, FEBS Lett. 452:346-350, 1999). In the present work, we found that AmyA generates larger quantities of alkyl glycosides than any amylase reported so far. In order to increase the alcoholytic activity observed in AmyA, several residues were identified and mutated based on previous analogous positions in amylases, defining the polarity and geometry of the active site. Replacement of residue His222 by glutamine generated an increase in the alkyl glucoside yield as a consequence of a higher alcoholysis/hydrolysis ratio. The same change in specificity was observed for the mutants H222E and H222D, but instability of these mutants toward alcohols decreased the yield of alkyl glucoside.     

Protection from Free β-Tubulin by the β-Tubulin Binding Protein Rbl2p

Free beta-tubulin not in heterodimers with alpha-tubulin can be toxic, disrupting microtubule assembly and function. We are interested in the mechanisms by which cells protect themselves from free beta-tubulin. This study focused specifically on the function of Rbl2p, which, like alpha-tubulin, can rescue cells from free beta-tubulin. In vitro studies of the mammalian homolog of Rbl2p, cofactor A, have suggested that Rbl2p/cofactor A may be involved in tubulin folding. Here we show that Rbl2p becomes essential in cells containing a modest excess of beta-tubulin relative to alpha-tubulin. However, this essential activity of Rbl2p/cofactorA does not depend upon the reactions described by the in vitro assay. Rescue of beta-tubulin toxicity requires a minimal but substoichiometric ratio of Rbl2p to beta-tubulin. The data suggest that Rbl2p binds transiently to free beta-tubulin, which then passes into an aggregated form that is not toxic.     

A Point Mutation in the Ethylene-Inducing Xylanase Elicitor Inhibits the β-1-4-Endoxylanase Activity But Not the Elicitation Activity

Ethylene-inducing xylanase (EIX) elicits plant defense responses in certain tobacco (Nicotiana tabacum) and tomato cultivars in addition to its xylan degradation activity. It is not clear, however, whether elicitation occurs by cell wall fragments released by the enzymatic activity or by the xylanase protein interacting directly with the plant cells. We cloned the gene encoding EIX protein and overexpressed it in insect cells. To determine the relationship between the two activities, substitution of amino acids in the xylanase active site was performed. Substitution at glutamic acid-86 or -177 with glutamine (Gln), aspartic acid (Asp), or glycine (Gly) inhibited the β-1-4-endoxylanase activity. Mutants having Asp-86 or Gln-177 also lost the ability to induce the hypersensitive response and ethylene biosynthesis. However, mutants having Gln-86, Gly-86, Asp-177, or Gly-177 retained ability to induce ethylene biosynthesis and the hypersensitive response. Our data show that the xylanase activity of EIX elicitor can be separated from the elicitation process, as some of the mutants lack the former but retain the latter.     

Affinity Modulation of Platelet Integrin αIIbβ3 by β3-Endonexin, a Selective Binding Partner of the β3 Integrin Cytoplasmic Tail

Platelet agonists increase the affinity state of integrin α_IIbβ₃, a prerequisite for fibrinogen binding and platelet aggregation. This process may be triggered by a regulatory molecule(s) that binds to the integrin cytoplasmic tails, causing a structural change in the receptor. β₃-Endonexin is a novel 111–amino acid protein that binds selectively to the β₃ tail. Since β₃-endonexin is present in platelets, we asked whether it can affect α_IIbβ₃ function. When β₃-endonexin was fused to green fluorescent protein (GFP) and transfected into CHO cells, it was found in both the cytoplasm and the nucleus and could be detected on Western blots of cell lysates. PAC1, a fibrinogen-mimetic mAb, was used to monitor α_IIbβ₃ affinity state in transfected cells by flow cytometry. Cells transfected with GFP and α_IIbβ₃ bound little or no PAC1. However, those transfected with GFP/β₃-endonexin and α_IIbβ₃ bound PAC1 specifically in an energy-dependent fashion, and they underwent fibrinogen-dependent aggregation. GFP/β₃-endonexin did not affect levels of surface expression of α_IIbβ₃ nor did it modulate the affinity of an α_IIbβ₃ mutant that is defective in binding to β₃-endonexin. Affinity modulation of α_IIbβ₃ by GFP/β₃-endonexin was inhibited by coexpression of either a monomeric β₃ cytoplasmic tail chimera or an activated form of H-Ras. These results demonstrate that β₃-endonexin can modulate the affinity state of α_IIbβ₃ in a manner that is structurally specific and subject to metabolic regulation. By analogy, the adhesive function of platelets may be regulated by such protein–protein interactions at the level of the cytoplasmic tails of α_IIbβ₃.     

Degradation of Starch–Poly(β-Hydroxybutyrate-Co-β-Hydroxyvalerate) Bioplastic in Tropical Coastal Waters

Extruded bioplastic was prepared from cornstarch or poly(β-hydroxybutyrate-co-β-hydroxyvalerate) (PHBV) or blends of cornstarch and PHBV. The blended formulations contained 30 or 50% starch in the presence or absence of polyethylene oxide (PEO), which enhances adherence of starch granules to PHBV. Degradation of these formulations was monitored for 1 year at four stations in coastal water southwest of Puerto Rico. Two stations were within a mangrove stand. The other two were offshore; one of these stations was on a shallow shoulder of a reef, and the other was at a location in deeper water. Microbial enumeration at the four stations revealed considerable flux in the populations over the course of the year. However, in general, the overall population densities were 1 order of magnitude less at the deeper-water station than at the other stations. Starch degraders were 10- to 50-fold more prevalent than PHBV degraders at all of the stations. Accordingly, degradation of the bioplastic, as determined by weight loss and deterioration of tensile properties, correlated with the amount of starch present (100% starch >50% starch > 30% starch > 100% PHBV). Incorporation of PEO into blends slightly retarded the rate of degradation. The rate of loss of starch from the 100% starch samples was about 2%/day, while the rate of loss of PHBV from the 100% PHBV samples was about 0.1%/day. Biphasic weight loss was observed for the starch-PHBV blends at all of the stations. A predictive mathematical model for loss of individual polymers from a 30% starch–70% PHBV formulation was developed and experimentally validated. The model showed that PHBV degradation was delayed 50 days until more than 80% of the starch was consumed and predicted that starch and PHBV in the blend had half-lives of 19 and 158 days, respectively. Consistent with the relatively low microbial populations, bioplastic degradation at the deeper-water station exhibited an initial lag period, after which degradation rates comparable to the degradation rates at the other stations were observed. Presumably, significant biodegradation occurred only after colonization of the plastic, a parameter that was dependent on the resident microbial populations. Therefore, it can be reasonably inferred that extended degradation lags would occur in open ocean water where microbes are sparse.     

Integrin α2β1 Is a Receptor for the Cartilage Matrix Protein Chondroadherin

Chondroadherin (the 36-kD protein) is a leucine-rich, cartilage matrix protein known to mediate adhesion of isolated chondrocytes. In the present study we investigated cell surface proteins involved in the interaction of cells with chondroadherin in cell adhesion and by affinity purification. Adhesion of bovine articular chondrocytes to chondroadherin-coated dishes was dependent on Mg²⁺ or Mn²⁺ but not Ca²⁺. Adhesion was partially inhibited by an antibody recognizing β1 integrin subunit. Chondroadherin-binding proteins from chondrocyte lysates were affinity purified on chondroadherin-Sepharose. The β1 integrin antibody immunoprecipitated two proteins with molecular mass ~110 and 140 kD (nonreduced) from the EDTA-eluted material. These results indicate that a β1 integrin on chondrocytes interacts with chondroadherin. To identify the α integrin subunit(s) involved in interaction of cells with the protein, we affinity purified chondroadherin-binding membrane proteins from human fibroblasts. Immunoprecipitation of the EDTA-eluted material from the affinity column identified α2β1 as a chondroadherin-binding integrin. These results are in agreement with cell adhesion experiments where antibodies against the integrin subunit α2 partially inhibited adhesion of human fibroblast and human chondrocytes to chondroadherin. Since α2β1 also is a receptor for collagen type II, we tested the ability of different antibodies against the α2 subunit to inhibit adhesion of T47D cells to collagen type II and chondroadherin. The results suggested that adhesion to collagen type II and chondroadherin involves similar or nearby sites on the α2β1 integrin. Although α2β1 is a receptor for both collagen type II and chondroadherin, only adhesion of cells to collagen type II was found to mediate spreading.     

Evidence for the emergence of β-trefoils by ‘Peptide Budding’ from an IgG-like β-sandwich

As sequence and structure comparison algorithms gain sensitivity, the intrinsic interconnectedness of the protein universe has become increasingly apparent. Despite this general trend, β-trefoils have emerged as an uncommon counterexample: They are an isolated protein lineage for which few, if any, sequence or structure associations to other lineages have been identified. If β-trefoils are, in fact, remote islands in sequence-structure space, it implies that the oligomerizing peptide that founded the β-trefoil lineage itself arose de novo. To better understand β-trefoil evolution, and to probe the limits of fragment sharing across the protein universe, we identified both ‘β-trefoil bridging themes’ (evolutionarily-related sequence segments) and ‘β-trefoil-like motifs’ (structure motifs with a hallmark feature of the β-trefoil architecture) in multiple, ostensibly unrelated, protein lineages. The success of the present approach stems, in part, from considering β-trefoil sequence segments or structure motifs rather than the β-trefoil architecture as a whole, as has been done previously. The newly uncovered inter-lineage connections presented here suggest a novel hypothesis about the origins of the β-trefoil fold itself–namely, that it is a derived fold formed by ‘budding’ from an Immunoglobulin-like β-sandwich protein. These results demonstrate how the evolution of a folded domain from a peptide need not be a signature of antiquity and underpin an emerging truth: few protein lineages escape nature’s sewing table.     

An α-Helical Signal in the Cytosolic Domain of the Interleukin 2 Receptor β Chain Mediates Sorting Towards Degradation after Endocytosis

High-affinity IL2 receptors consist of three components, the α, β, and γ chains that are associated in a noncovalent manner. Both the β and γ chains belong to the cytokine receptor superfamily. Interleukin 2 (IL2) binds to high-affinity receptors on the cell surface and IL2-receptor complexes are internalized. After endocytosis, the components of this multimolecular receptor have different intracellular fates: one of the chains, α, recycles to the plasma membrane, while the others, β and γ, are routed towards late endocytic compartments and are degraded. We show here that the cytosolic domain of the β chain contains a 10–amino acid sequence which codes for a sorting signal. When transferred to a normally recycling receptor, this sequence diverts it from recycling. The structure of a 17–amino acid segment of the β chain including this sequence has been studied by nuclear magnetic resonance and circular dichroism spectroscopy, which revealed that the 10 amino acids corresponding to the sorting signal form an amphipathic α helix. This work thus describes a novel, highly structured signal, which is sufficient for sorting towards degradation compartments after endocytosis.     

Crystal structure of the ββα-Me type II restriction endonuclease Hpy99I with target DNA

The ββα-Me restriction endonuclease (REase) Hpy99I recognizes the CGWCG target sequence and cleaves it with unusual stagger (five nucleotide 5′-recessed ends). Here we present the crystal structure of the specific complex of the dimeric enzyme with DNA. The Hpy99I protomer consists of an antiparallel β-barrel and two β4α2 repeats. Each repeat coordinates a structural zinc ion with four cysteine thiolates in two CXXC motifs. The ββα-Me region of the second β4α2 repeat holds the catalytic metal ion (or its sodium surrogate) via Asp148 and Asn165 and activates a water molecule with the general base His149. In the specific complex, Hpy99I forms a ring-like structure around the DNA that contacts DNA bases on the major and minor groove sides via the first and second β4α2 repeats, respectively. Hpy99I interacts with the central base pair of the recognition sequence only on the minor groove side, where A:T resembles T:A and G:C is similar to C:G. The Hpy99I–DNA co-crystal structure provides the first detailed illustration of the ββα-Me site in REases and complements structural information on the use of this active site motif in other groups of endonucleases such as homing endonucleases (e.g. I-PpoI) and Holliday junction resolvases (e.g. T4 endonuclease VII).     

Fusion of family 2b carbohydrate-binding module increases the catalytic activity of a xylanase from Thermotoga maritima to soluble xylan

A family 2b carbohydrate-binding module from Streptomyces thermoviolaceus STX-II was fused at the carboxyl-terminus of XynB, a thermostable and single domain family 10 xylanase from Thermotoga maritima, to create a chimeric xylanase. The chimeric enzyme (XynB-CBM2b) was purified and characterized. It displayed a pH-activity profile similar to that of XynB and was stable up to 90 degrees C. XynB-CBM2b bound to insoluble birchwood and oatspelt xylan. Whereas its hydrolytic activities toward insoluble xylan and p-nitrophenyl-beta-xylopyranoside were similar to those of XynB, its activity toward soluble xylan was moderately higher than that of XynB.     

Mutations in PBP2 from ceftriaxone-resistant Neisseria gonorrhoeae alter the dynamics of the β3–β4 loop to favor a low-affinity drug-binding state

Resistance to the extended-spectrum cephalosporin ceftriaxone in the pathogenic bacteria Neisseria gonorrhoeae is conferred by mutations in penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2), the lethal target of the antibiotic, but how these mutations exert their effect at the molecular level is unclear. Using solution NMR, X-ray crystallography, and isothermal titration calorimetry, we report that WT PBP2 exchanges dynamically between a low-affinity state with an extended β3–β4 loop conformation and a high-affinity state with an inward β3–β4 loop conformation. Histidine-514, which is located at the boundary of the β4 strand, plays an important role during the exchange between these two conformational states. We also find that mutations present in PBP2 from H041, a ceftriaxone-resistant strain of N. gonorrhoeae, increase resistance to ceftriaxone by destabilizing the inward β3–β4 loop conformation or stabilizing the extended β3–β4 loop conformation to favor the low-affinity drug-binding state. These observations reveal a unique mechanism for ceftriaxone resistance, whereby mutations in PBP2 lower the proportion of target molecules in the high-affinity drug-binding state and thus reduce inhibition at lower drug concentrations.Keywords: PBP2, Neisseria gonorrhoeae, beta-lactam, conformational dynamics, antibiotic resistance

Neisseria gonorrhoeae is the causative agent of the sexually transmitted infection gonorrhea, with nearly 80 million cases worldwide each year (1). Without antibiotic treatment, infections persist as a chronic disease and can cause serious sequelae, including pelvic inflammatory disease, infertility, arthritis, and disseminated infections (2). For many years, N. gonorrhoeae was treated with a single dose of penicillin, and more recently, ceftriaxone. In 2012, the emergence of several high-level ceftriaxone-resistant strains led the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention to change its recommended treatment for gonorrhea from monotherapy to dual therapy with ceftriaxone and azithromycin (3, 4, 5). However, treatment failures have been reported for both agents, and in 2018, a strain with high-level resistance to both ceftriaxone and azithromycin was identified (6, 7). Concern about azithromycin resistance led the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention recently to drop the recommendation of dual therapy in favor of an increased dose (500 mg) of ceftriaxone alone (8). Both penicillin and ceftriaxone inhibit cell wall biosynthesis in N. gonorrhoeae by targeting penicillin-binding protein 2 (PBP2).PBP2 is an essential peptidoglycan transpeptidase (TPase) that crosslinks the peptide chains from adjacent peptidoglycan strands during cell-wall synthesis (9). β-lactam antibiotics, including the extended-spectrum cephalosporin (ESC) ceftriaxone, are analogs of the d-Ala-d-Ala C terminus of the peptidoglycan substrate and as such target PBP2 by binding to and reacting with the active-site serine nucleophile (Ser310 in N. gonorrhoeae PBP2) to form a covalently acylated complex (10, 11). The acylation reaction (Equation 1) proceeds first through formation of a noncovalent complex with the β-lactam (defined by the equilibrium constant, Ks), which is then attacked by the serine nucleophile to form a covalent acyl-enzyme complex (k₂). For PBPs, hydrolysis of the acyl-enzyme (k₃) is very slow compared with its formation, and the enzyme is essentially irreversibly inactivated. The acylation of PBPs by β-lactam antibiotics is therefore defined by a second-order rate constant, k₂/Ks (M⁻¹ s⁻¹), which reflects both the noncovalent binding affinity (Ks) and the first-order acylation rate (k₂):E+S↔KsE⋅S→k2E−S→k3E+P(1)The emergence of resistance to penicillin and ceftriaxone in N. gonorrhoeae occurs primarily via the acquisition of mutant alleles of the penA gene encoding PBP2 (12). These alleles are referred to as mosaic because they arise through multiple homologous recombination events with DNA released by commensal Neisseria species. PBP2 from the high-level ceftriaxone-resistant strain, H041, contains 61 mutations compared with PBP2 from the antibiotic-susceptible strain, FA19 (13, 14). Determining how these mutations lower the k₂/Ks of ceftriaxone for PBP2 by over 10,000-fold while still preserving essential TPase activity is fundamental for understanding the evolution of antibiotic resistance.Toward this goal, we have identified a subset of these mutations that, when incorporated into the penA gene from FA19, confer ∼80% of the increase in minimum inhibitory concentration for ceftriaxone relative to that of the penA gene from H041 (penA41) (15, 16). We recently reported the structures of apo and ceftriaxone-acylated PBP2 at high resolution and have detailed conformational changes in β3 and the β3–β4 loop involved in antibiotic binding and acylation (17). Intriguingly, although present in the active site region, most of the mutations conferring resistance are not in direct contact with ceftriaxone in the crystal structure of acylated PBP2 (17, 18). We have proposed that these mutations alter the binding and acylation kinetics of PBP2 with ceftriaxone by restricting protein dynamics (18).To understand further the structural and biochemical mechanisms by which these mutations lower the acylation rates of β-lactam antibiotics, we utilized a combination of solution ¹⁹F NMR, X-ray crystallography, and biochemical approaches to investigate PBP2. We report that the β3–β4 loop in the TPase domain of WT PBP2, which is known to adopt markedly different conformations in the apo versus acylated crystal structures (17), samples two major conformational states in solution. Substitutions of WT PBP2 residues with mutations in H041 that confer ceftriaxone resistance alter the conformational landscape of PBP2 by destabilizing the high-affinity state containing the inward conformation of the β3–β4 loop and stabilizing a low-affinity conformation containing an extended β3–β4 loop conformation, thereby restricting access to the inward conformation required for high-affinity drug binding. Our combined solution NMR and crystallographic analyses of PBP2 and its preacylation drug complexes further support the notion that mutations in PBP2 from ceftriaxone-resistant strains of N. gonorrhoeae confer antibiotic resistance by hindering conformational changes required to form a productive drug-binding state (18).     

Ribosylation of the CD8αβ heterodimer permits binding of the nonclassical major histocompatibility molecule,H2-Q10

The CD8αβ heterodimer plays a crucial role in the stabilization between major histocompatibility complex class I molecules (MHC-I) and the T cell receptor (TCR). The interaction between CD8 and MHC-I can be regulated by posttranslational modifications, which are proposed to play an important role in the development of CD8 T cells. One modification that has been proposed to control CD8 coreceptor function is ribosylation. Utilizing NAD⁺, the ecto-enzyme adenosine diphosphate (ADP) ribosyl transferase 2.2 (ART2.2) catalyzes the addition of ADP-ribosyl groups onto arginine residues of CD8α or β chains and alters the interaction between the MHC and TCR complexes. To date, only interactions between modified CD8 and classical MHC-I (MHC-Ia), have been investigated and the interaction with non-classical MHC (MHC-Ib) has not been explored. Here, we show that ADP-ribosylation of CD8 facilitates the binding of the liver-restricted nonclassical MHC, H2-Q10, independent of the associated TCR or presented peptide, and propose that this highly regulated binding imposes an additional inhibitory leash on the activation of CD8-expressing cells in the presence of NAD⁺. These findings highlight additional important roles for nonclassical MHC-I in the regulation of immune responses.     

Hydrolytic properties of a thermostable α‐l‐arabinofuranosidase from Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus

Aims: To characterize of a thermostable recombinant α‐l ‐arabinofuranosidase from Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus for the hydrolysis of arabino‐oligosaccharides to l ‐arabinose. Methods and Results: A recombinant α‐l ‐arabinofuranosidase from C. saccharolyticus was purified by heat treatment and Hi‐Trap anion exchange chromatography with a specific activity of 28·2 U mg^?1. The native enzyme was a 58‐kDa octamer with a molecular mass of 460 kDa, as measured by gel filtration. The catalytic residues and consensus sequences of the glycoside hydrolase 51 family of α‐l ‐arabinofuranosidases were completely conserved in α‐l ‐arabinofuranosidase from C. saccharolyticus. The maximum enzyme activity was observed at pH 5·5 and 80°C with a half‐life of 49 h at 75°C. Among aryl‐glycoside substrates, the enzyme displayed activity only for p‐nitrophenyl‐α‐l ‐arabinofuranoside [maximum k_cat/K_m of 220 m(mol l^?1)^?1 s^?1] and p‐nitrophenyl‐α‐l ‐arabinopyranoside. This substrate specificity differs from those of other α‐l ‐arabinofuranosidases. In a 1 mmol l^?1 solution of each sugar, arabino‐oligosaccharides with 2–5 monomer units were completely hydrolysed to l ‐arabinose within 13 h in the presence of 30 U ml^?1 of enzyme at 75°C. Conclusions: The novel substrate specificity and hydrolytic properties for arabino‐oligosaccharides of α‐l ‐arabinofuranosidase from C. saccharolyticus demonstrate the potential in the commercial production of l ‐arabinose in concert with endoarabinanase and/or xylanase. Significance and Impact of the Study: The findings of this work contribute to the knowledge of hydrolytic properties for arabino‐oligosaccharides performed by thermostable α‐l ‐arabinofuranosidase.     

Assembly and Intracellular Targeting of the βγ Subunits of Heterotrimeric G Proteins

The assembly in living cells of heterotrimeric guanine nucleotide binding proteins from their constituent α, β, and γ subunits is a complex process, compounded by the multiplicity of the genes that encode them, and the diversity of receptors and effectors with which they interact. Monoclonal anti-β antibodies (ARC5 and ARC9), raised against immunoaffinity purified βγ complexes, recognize β subunits when not associated with γ and can thus be used to monitor assembly of βγ complexes. Complex formation starts immediately after synthesis and is complete within 30 min. Assembly occurs predominantly in the cytosol, and association of βγ complexes with the plasma membrane fraction starts between 15–30 min of chase. Three pools of β subunits can be distinguished based on their association with γ subunits, their localization, and their detergent solubility. Association of β and α subunits with detergent-insoluble domains occurs within 1 min of chase, and increases to reach a plateau of near complete detergent resistance within 30 min of chase. Brefeldin A treatment does not interfere with delivery of βγ subunits to detergent-insoluble domains, suggesting that assembly of G protein subunits with their receptors occurs distally from the BFA-imposed block of intracellular membrane trafficking and may occur directly at the plasma membrane.     

Purification of Staphylocidal β-Lysin from Rabbit Serum

A cationic protein of rabbit serum bactericidal for Staphylococcus aureus was purified. The specific activity per unit of protein of the purified staphylocidal preparation was approximately 37,000 times greater than that of the serum from which it was isolated. Similar techniques were used to purify serum beta-lysin active against Bacillus subtilis approximately 24,000 times. The staphylocidal activity cannot be attributed to the same beta-lysin active against B. subtilis, lysozyme, or antibody-complement systems. The concentrations of staphylocidal beta-lysin in the sera of the five mammalian species studied did not correlate with their beta-lysin activities against B. subtilis. The two beta-lysins are similar in that both were heat-stable, sensitive to trypsin digestion, had molecular weights near 6,000, and were found in higher concentrations in serum than in plasma. Furthermore, similar techniques can be used to absorb and elute both substances in highly purified forms using cellulose asbestos filter pads and ion exchange chromatography on carboxymethyl cellulose. In contrast to the beta-lysin against B. subtilis, the staphylocidal beta-lysin was not released from blood platelets, and it was inactive in the presence of heparin, sodium citrate, sodium oxalate, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, acidic phospholipids, and acid pH values. A variety of proteins, including those of normal serum, preferentially inhibited the bactericidal activity of staphylocidal beta-lysin but not the beta-lysin against B. subtilis.     

Cold-Adapted β-Galactosidase from the Antarctic Psychrophile Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis

The β-galactosidase from the Antarctic gram-negative bacterium Pseudoalteromonas haloplanktis TAE 79 was purified to homogeneity. The nucleotide sequence and the NH₂-terminal amino acid sequence of the purified enzyme indicate that the β-galactosidase subunit is composed of 1,038 amino acids with a calculated M_r of 118,068. This β-galactosidase shares structural properties with Escherichia coli β-galactosidase (comparable subunit mass, 51% amino sequence identity, conservation of amino acid residues involved in catalysis, similar optimal pH value, and requirement for divalent metal ions) but is characterized by a higher catalytic efficiency on synthetic and natural substrates and by a shift of apparent optimum activity toward low temperatures and lower thermal stability. The enzyme also differs by a higher pI (7.8) and by specific thermodynamic activation parameters. P. haloplanktis β-galactosidase was expressed in E. coli, and the recombinant enzyme displays properties identical to those of the wild-type enzyme. Heat-induced unfolding monitored by intrinsic fluorescence spectroscopy showed lower melting point values for both P. haloplanktis wild-type and recombinant β-galactosidase compared to the mesophilic enzyme. Assays of lactose hydrolysis in milk demonstrate that P. haloplanktis β-galactosidase can outperform the current commercial β-galactosidase from Kluyveromyces marxianus var. lactis, suggesting that the cold-adapted β-galactosidase could be used to hydrolyze lactose in dairy products processed in refrigerated plants.