Yellow sticky trap catches of parasitoids of Bemisia tabaci (Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) in vegetable crops and their relationship to in-field populations

We examined the relationship of yellow sticky trap captures of Bemisia tabaci (Gennadius) biotype B parasitoids to the local population of parasitoids as measured by leaf samples of parasitized whiteflies and mass release of parasitoids. Traps were placed in experimental collard and cowpea field plots in Charleston, SC, and in commercial organic fields of spring cantaloupe and watermelon in the Imperial Valley, CA. The exotic parasitoid Eretmocerus emiratus Zolnerowich and Rose was released in Imperial Valley fields to ensure parasitoid populations would be present. Bemisia adults were trapped in the greatest numbers on the upper surface of horizontally oriented sticky traps in melon fields. In contrast, the lower trap surfaces consistently captured more Eretmocerus than upper surfaces. Female parasitoids were trapped in greater numbers than males, especially on the lower trap surfaces. Progeny of released exotic Eretmocerus greatly outnumbered native E. eremicus Rose and Zolnerowich and Encarsia spp. on traps. Throughout the season, the trend of increasing numbers of Eretmocerus on traps parallelled the increase in numbers of whiteflies. Over the season, 23-84% of all B. tabaci fourth instars were visibly parasitized by Eretmocerus. The numbers of Eretmocerus caught by traps in cantaloupe were similar in trend to numbers on leaf samples in melons, but not with those in watermelon, where whitefly populations were lower. Parasitoid numbers were low in collard and cowpea samples, and no trend was observed in numbers of parasitoids captured on traps and numbers on leaves for these two crops. Overall, there were no significant correlations between sticky trap catches of parasitoids and numbers of parasitized whiteflies on leaf samples in any test fields. Nevertheless, sticky traps placed within crops may be useful for observing trends in whitefly parasitoid populations at a particular site and for detecting parasitoids at specific locations.     

Local dispersal of maleHelicoverpa zea

Local dispersal ofHelicoverpa zea (Boddie) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) males as they emerged following the F₁ and F₂ generations in dent corn was examined in a 4 km diam. area in South Carolina, USA. Males were marked at artificial nectar feeding stations using RbCl, and recovered in traps baited with a synthetic pheromone. Effects of nocturnal boundary layer winds, crop pattern at the pheromone traps, and crop pattern between the marking area and pheromone traps were examined. Local movement of captured male moths was predominantly downwind in both flights in both years of the study. Crop pattern at the traps had no effect on capture of marked moths. During some flights, flowering crops between the marking area and traps had a negative effect on the number of marked moths captured.     

Downwind migration of the African army worm moth, Spodoptera exempta, studied by mark-and-capture and by radar

Abstract. 1. About 166,000 African armyworm moths, Spodoptera exempta (Walk.), were marked at an emergence site near Nairobi when they fed at night on trees baited with dyed molasses.
2. Six marked moths were captured in pheromone traps, including one at 90 km after flying for only one night, and another at 147 km.
3. Moth flight trajectories deduced from radar and from marking showed that migration was downwind.
4. During migration, moths become dispersed; hence the high densities that lead to outbreaks must be produced by concentration.
5. Some moths were ready to mate on the same night they completed their long-distance flight.     

Evaluation of traps used to monitor southern pine beetle aerial populations and sex ratios

1 Various kinds of traps have been employed to monitor and forecast population trends of the southern pine beetle (Dendroctonus frontalis Zimmermann; Coleoptera: Scolytidae), but their accuracy in assessing pine‐beetle abundance and sex ratio in the field has not been evaluated directly. 2 In this study, we used fluorescent powder to mark pine beetles emerging from six isolated infestations. We then compared estimates of total abundances and proportions of males emerging from within each infestation to the estimates from three types of traps: passive sticky traps (2, 5, 10 and 20 m away from the source of beetles), multi‐funnel traps baited with pine beetle attractants (100 m away) and pine trees baited with attractants (also 100 m away). 3 We found that the proportion of males captured in traps was significantly affected by the type of trap used. 4 Within an infestation, equal proportions of males and females were marked (0.53 ± 0.02 males; mean ± SE), but the proportions captured in trap trees and passive traps were more female biased (0.42 ± 0.03 and 0.46 ± 0.01 males, respectively). On the other hand, funnel traps provided an estimate of the proportion of males that was nearly identical to the proportion from within infestations (0.51 ± 0.03). 5 Numbers of marked beetles captured in traps were uncorrelated with the numbers of marked beetles emerging from the focal infestations. This suggests that traps positioned around an infestation may not be effective at estimating relative abundances of beetles within the infestation.     

Seasonal distribution and abundance of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) in the Faro and Deo Division of the Adamaoua Plateau in Cameroon

Ten years after the large-scale tsetse control campaigns in the important cattle rearing areas of the Faro and Deo Division of the Adamaoua Plateau in Cameroon, the seasonal distribution and abundance of tsetse flies (Glossina spp.) were determined. During a period of 12 consecutive months (January-December 2005), the tsetse population was monitored along four trap transects consisting of a total of 32 traps and two flyround transects traversing the study area, which comprised the tsetse-infested valley, a buffer zone and the supposedly tsetse-free plateau. Throughout the study period, a total of 2195 Glossina morsitans submorsitans and 23 Glossina tachinoides were captured in the traps and 1007 G. m. submorsitans (78.8% male flies) were captured along the flyround transects. All G. tachinoides and almost all G. m. submorsitans were captured in the valley. Five G. m. submorsitans were captured in traps located in the buffer zone, whereas no flies were captured in traps located on the plateau. The index of apparent abundance (IAA) of G. m. submorsitans was substantially higher in the areas close to game reserves. In the remaining part of the valley, where wildlife is scarce and cattle are present during transhumance (dry season), the IAA of tsetse was substantially lower. In this part of the valley, the abundance of tsetse seemed to be associated with the presence of cattle, with the highest IAA during transhumance when cattle are present and the lowest apparent abundance during the rainy season when cattle have moved to the plateau. It is concluded that the distribution of tsetse in a large part of the valley undergoes substantial seasonal changes depending on the presence or absence of cattle. The repercussions of those findings for the control of tsetse in the valley and the probability of reinvasion of the plateau are discussed.     

南京地区棉蚜的飞行活动节律及其飞行能力

昆虫的飞行活动规律及飞行能力是研究其能否迁飞的基础。通过采用春季到秋季20 m高空黄盆诱蚜、高空所诱蚜和春季木槿树上有翅蚜的卵巢解剖,以及春夏秋三季田间有翅蚜的吊飞试验等方法,研究了南京地区棉蚜Aphis gossypii的飞行活动节律和飞行能力。结果表明,有翅棉蚜的日羽化高峰出现在19:00～20:00。2001年南京地区棉蚜的春、秋两季迁飞高峰分别在5月8日和10月25日。5月份高空诱集的棉蚜中,95.7%个体的卵巢小管数在7条以下,而木槿上羽化后1天的有翅蚜中有35.2%个体的卵巢小管数在7条以上;高空诱蚜和木槿上蚜的平均卵巢小管数存在极显著差异,分别为3.94±1.65和5.88±1.92。8月中下旬棉田棉蚜存在低空飞行行为,并且出现飞行高峰时有翅蚜的卵巢小管数平均在6条以下,超过6条则停止飞行。羽化后1～2天有翅棉蚜吊飞个体的飞行比率和平均飞行距离表现为春、秋季显著大于夏季,三季的最长飞行距离分别为3.89 km、6.15 km和1.44 km。     

Response of plum curculio (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) to odor-baited traps near woods.

Response of overwintered plum curculios, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst), to odor-baited traps was evaluated from the beginning until nearly the end of emigration from overwintering sites in woods. We evaluated clear sticky Plexiglas panels and black pyramid traps placed close to woods adjacent to apple trees in an unsprayed section of an orchard. Traps were baited with aggregation pheromone (grandisoic acid) alone or in combination with one of six synthetic fruit volatiles (benzaldehvde, decyl aldehyde, E-2-hexenal, ethyl isovalerate, hexyl acetate, or limonene). Unbaited traps served as a control treatment. Plum curculio emigration from woods was divided into early-, mid-, and late-season periods based primarily on phenological stage of apple bud and fruit development (tight cluster to bloom, petal fall, and fruit set, respectively). During both early- and late season, panel and pyramid traps baited with benzaldehyde plus pheromone were significantly more attractive than any other traps (baited or unbaited), except panel traps baited with ethyl isovalerate plus pheromone in early season, which likewise captured significantly more adults than unbaited panel traps. During midseason, no lures were significantly attractive, possibly due to prevailing cool weather, unfavorable for adult activity. Over the entire season, panel or pyramid traps baited with benzaldehyde plus pheromone captured nearly six times as many plum curculios as unbaited traps of each type, whereas traps baited with pheromone alone captured about twice as many as unbaited traps of each type. We provide information on sex ratio, female maturity stage, and mating status, and several weather parameters associated with trap captures. We conclude that panel or pyramid traps, or a combination, baited with benzaldehyde plus pheromone placed at borders of plum curculio overwintering sites can be a valuable tool for monitoring the beginning, peak, and end of adult immigration into apple orchards.     

Early detection and population monitoring of Ceratitis capitata (Diptera: Tephritidae) in a mixed-fruit orchard in northern Greece

Population monitoring of the Mediterranean fruit fly,Ceratitis capitata (Wiedemann), was studied in 1998 in a mixed-fruit orchard in northern Greece, using International Pheromone McPhail traps (IPMT) baited with the female targeted attractants ammonium acetate, putrescine, and trimethylamine, and Jackson traps baited with the male specific parapheromone trimedlure. Special emphasis was placed on detecting the low initial adult population resulting from surviving overwintering larvae as early as possible in the spring and early summer. Traps were suspended on various host trees, using trap grid densities of either 15 or 1.5 traps per hectare. The first adults detected were females captured on 24 June in IPMT traps suspended on apricot trees, which are among the earliest maturing hosts in the area. From the end of July, the most effective trap was the IPMT trap placed on peaches, which followed apricots in the fruit ripening sequence. IPMT traps captured predominately females (approximately 80% of the total captures) and by far outperformed Jackson traps in early detection (the first males in Jackson traps were captured in August) as well as in total captures until mid-October. After mid-October, however, more flies were captured in Jackson traps. Comparing the performance of two trap grid densities on apple trees (the common host in the two grids), we found that in the high-density trap grid the first adults were detected 1 wk earlier than in the low-density trap grid. Our findings for this locality suggest that trap type and plant species on which traps are suspended are of key importance in early detection and population monitoring of C. capitata.     

Evaluation of sampling methodology for determining the population dynamics of onion thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) in Ontario onion fields

Onion thrips, Thrips tabaci Lindeman, are an economic pest of alliums worldwide. In Ontario onion-growing regions, seasonal abundance and population trends of onion thrips are not well known. The objectives of this research were to investigate onion thrips population dynamics by using both white sticky traps and plant counts, to gain insight into flight height, and to determine the genus and sex of thrips fauna present in monitored fields. Adult thrips were captured on white sticky traps placed in two commercial onion fields in the Thedford-Grand Bend Marsh region as early as mid-May in 2001, 2002, and 2003. Thrips were not recorded on onion plants in these fields until late June and early July. A comparison of sticky trap captures to plant counts revealed a strong, positive correlation, indicating that sticky traps, which consistently detected thrips earlier than plant counts, could be used instead of plant counts early in the season to monitor onion thrips populations. Pole traps placed in onion and an adjacent soybean, Glycine max (L.) Merr., field revealed that regardless of crop type, most thrips were captured 0.7-0.95 m above the soil surface. During this study, 70% of 137,000 thrips captured on sticky traps and 89% of 1,482 thrips captured in pan traps were female onion thrips. No male onion thrips were identified in this study: most of the remaining thrips were Frankliniella spp.     

Orientation of males of sorghum midge,Contarinia sorghicola to sex pheromones from virgin females in the field

The orientation of males of the sorghum midge,Contarinia sorghicola Coq. (Diptera: Cecidomyiidae) towards virgin female baited sticky traps was studied in the field. Male response increased linearly with an increase in the number of virgin females in the sticky traps. Five females per vial were optimum for monitoring midge populations in the field. Numbers of males trapped were significantly greater in traps placed at 0.5 and 1.5 m above ground level compared with those placed at 2.5 m. Peak trap catches occurred at 0900 h. The number of males trapped decreased significantly after 1400 h; male catches continued till sunset. Trap catches followed the same pattern as the number of ovipositing females on sorghum panicles at the half-anthesis stage. Midge activity decreased with an increase in temperature and a decrease in relative humidity. Peak midge density was observed during the second fortnight of October in the rainy season and during February-March in the post-rainy season. Sex pheromones can be used to monitor midge population dynamics for integrated pest management and to screen for host plant resistance to this insect.     

A mark-release-recapture experiment with Anopheles sinensis in the northern part of Gyeonggi-do,Korea

In order to study the range of flight and feeding activity of Anopheles sinensis, the dispersal experiment was conducted in Paju city, located in the northern part of Gyeonggi-do, Republic of Korea, during the period of 7th to 28th September 1998. Unfed females An. sinensis were collected in cowshed and released after being marked with fluorescent dye at 23:00 hours on the same day. Released female mosquitoes were recaptured everyday during 21 days using light traps, which were set at 10 sites in the cowsheds located 1, 3, 6, 9 and 12 km north-northwest and north-northeast and at 3 sites located 1, 6 and 9 km toward south-west from the release point. In addition, to study the longest flight distance in one night, we set the light traps at 16 and 20 km toward north-northeast from the release site. All the collected mosquitoes were placed on filter papers and observed on UV transilluminator after treatment with one drop of 100% ethanol. Out of 12,773 females of An. sinensis released, 194 marked females mosquitoes were recaptured, giving 1.52% recapture rate. Of 194, 72 mosquitoes (37.1%) were recaptured in light traps from three places set at 1 km from the release point, 57 mosquitoes (29.4%) from two places at 1-3 km, 41 mosquitoes (21.1%) from three places at 3-6 km, 20 mosquitoes (10.3%) from three places at 6-9 km, and 4 mosquitoes (2.1%) from two places at 9-12 km. Since 170 female mosquitoes (87.6%) out of 194 marked mosquitoes were captured within 6 km from the release point, this flight radius represents the main activity area. An sinensis was found to be able to fly at least 12 km during one night.     

Abundance of Diaprepes abbreviatus (L.) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) neonates falling to the soil under tree canopies in Florida citrus groves

The purpose of these experiments was to estimate the number and distribution of Diaprepes abbreviatus (L.) neonate larvae dropping from the canopy of infested citrus trees. The number of neonates was monitored in the field using passive funnel traps in two simultaneous experiments and a separate experiment for an additional year. In one experiment, traps were placed from trunk to dripline in the cardinal directions under each of five trees (132 traps total). In a second experiment, eight traps were placed under each tree in the cardinal directions, one trap 30 cm from the trunk and one trap 30 cm from the dripline/direction for 25 trees (200 traps total). Larvae were collected weekly for 50 wk in conical tubes containing ethylene glycol as a preservative. Traps closer to the tree trunk captured more larvae than traps nearer the dripline. The area under the tree canopy was positively correlated with the total estimated number of larvae captured per tree. The estimated number of total larvae/tree over the course of our experiments ranged from 955 to 7,290. The highest number of neonate larvae observed in 1 wk was 67 +/- 6/m2. There was an inverse relationship between the number of traps beneath a tree and the number of trees that needed to be sampled to estimate mean population density with a given precision. However, there was a direct relationship between number of traps/tree and the total number of traps needed for a given precision. This passive technique could be used to quantify the destructive larval stage and to assess D. abbreviatus management strategies.     

Potential of yellow sticky traps for lady beetle survey in cotton

A 2-yr study was conducted to investigate the potential of using yellow sticky traps to survey lady beetles in cotton and to quantify seasonal activity patterns. The performance of sticky traps was compared with that of a 2-cycle vacuum sampler. The most common lady beetle species captured by sticky traps and vacuum sampler in cotton were Hippodamia convergens Guerin-Meneville and Scymnus loewii Mulsant. Sticky traps captured significantly more of both species of lady beetles, had greater capture efficiency, and more effectively detected lady beetles compared with the vacuum sampler. These data indicate that the sticky trap can be a valuable tool in monitoring lady beetle populations in cotton. In the second part of this study, a year-round survey of lady beetle populations in the periphery of a cotton farm using sticky traps showed that lady beetles remained active throughout the year in the Texas Rolling Plains, but the activity was influenced by winter severity. Over a 2-yr period, H. convergens, S. loewii, Coccinella septempunctata (L.), and Olla v-nigrum (Mulsant) comprised 89.6, 8.2, 1.9, and 0.3% of the specimens, respectively. Sticky trap captures were affected by year, trap height, and cropping season. Traps placed at 0.75 m above ground captured significantly more (80%) lady beetles than traps placed at 1.50 m (20%) above ground; traps at 0.75 m above ground also detected the rarer species while the traps at 1.50 m above ground detected only the abundant species. Trap captures were higher during the noncotton season (November to April) compared with the cotton season (May to October). A significant positive correlation between cotton aphid abundance during the growing season and H. convergens abundance during the following noncotton season was also detected, indicating a significant movement of H. convergens from cotton to the periphery of the farm to seek refuge after cotton termination.     

Vertical distribution of codling moth adults in pheromone-treated and untreated plots

The vertical distribution of codling moth,Cydia pomonella (L.) within pheromone-treated and untreated apple and pear orchard canopies was determined using tethered virgin females, unbaited sticky traps, and blacklight observation of released moths. Mating of virgin females tethered at various heights in untreated orchard canopies increased with placement height from 1–4 m. Application of pheromone dispensers for mating disruption at 2 and 4 m above the ground greatly decreased mating. Greatest capture of males and females on unbaited sticky traps occurred at mid- and upper-canopy heights. Total capture of males and females in pheromone-treated plots was not statistically different than in untreated plots. The percentage of mated females captured on sticky traps did not vary with trap height or pheromone treatment. Released moths marked with flourescent powder and observed at dark with a blacklight indicated that moths are primarily distributed high in the canopy. However, males shifted to a position lower in the canopy when pheromone dispensers were placed 2.1 m above the ground. Results suggest that pheromone dispensers be placed in the upper canopy for optimal disruption of codling moth mating.     

Novel visual-cue-based sticky traps for monitoring of emerald ash borers, Agrilus planipennis (Col., Buprestidae)

We examined various methods of trapping emerald ash borers (EAB), Agrilus planipennis Fairmaire, using solely visual cues based on previous work that has documented the importance of visual cues in EAB mate location. Here, we give the results of two of these methods, coloured sticky cards (yellow or blue), or live ash leaves covered with spray-on adhesive to which dead male EAB visual lures had been pinned. Feral male beetles were captured effectively on the sticky traps made from dead male EAB on ash leaves. These sticky-leaf-traps captured more male EAB when deployed in high-population density areas than low-density areas, but did capture EAB even at lower population densities. More feral males were captured on these traps when they were placed higher in the trees, regardless of the population density of EAB. Very few feral female EAB were captured using the sticky-leaf-traps. This novel method of EAB trapping may allow 'real-time' population detection and monitoring of EAB adults during the active flight period rather than locating larval galleries during the autumn and winter after adult flight and attack. Feral male beetles were also captured using standard yellow- or blue-coloured sticky cards to which male EAB had been affixed with adhesive; however, this type of trap was much less effective overall than using the sticky-leaf-traps. Furthermore, Agrilus cyanescens , a species similar in colour to EAB but smaller in size, showed a strong response to blue-coloured sticky traps to which dead male EAB had been affixed with adhesive, suggesting a general use of visual cues in the mating systems of some of the other Buprestidae as well.     

Rapid estimation of numbers of whiteflies (Hemiptera: Aleurodidae) and thrips (Thysanoptera: Thripidae) on sticky traps

The presence or absence of greenhouse whiteflies, Trialeurodes vaporariorum Westwood, and thrips, primarily western flower thrips, Frankliniella occidentalis (Pergande), in cells of a grid laid over 7.6 cm by 12.7 cm sticky traps was used to estimate the population density of these pests on the trap. The method accurately predicted trap population densities of between 15 and 192 individuals per side for thrips on blue and yellow traps and between 15 and 168 whiteflies per side on yellow traps. The distribution of both whiteflies and thrips tended to be clustered on the sides and upper edge of the traps. The method is useful in giving a far more rapid estimate than counting individuals, particularly at high population densities.     

Temporal variation in abundance of male and female spruce budworms at combinatory associations of light traps and pheromone traps

A 3‐year study (2014–2016) was conducted at Rocky Harbour near the west coast of Newfoundland, Canada, to record the abundance and phenology of adult spruce budworms captured at traps, using a factorial design (light traps and pheromone traps deployed contiguously or segregated spatially). Budworms were most abundant and occurred seasonally earlier in 2014 than in 2015 and 2016; these findings held generally true for males and females. The geographic setting of Newfoundland (large island isolated from the mainland by an oceanic barrier of >100 km across) provides an ideal location to discriminate local flight from long‐range immigrations; in our study, however, immigrations cannot be ruled out for any single day of trapping due to broad overlap in emergence patterns at Rocky Harbour relative to forest stands with known populations of budworms on the mainland. Based on moderate daily variation in adult abundance, however, major immigration events (defined as external deposition of budworms with large numerical amplitude) likely did not take place at Rocky Harbor between 2014 and 2016. Males were more abundant at light traps coupled with pheromone traps, whereas abundance of males at pheromone traps was similar with or without contiguous light traps. This outcome may be mediated by lower range of attraction for light traps (usually <100 m) and (generally assumed to be several hundreds of meters). Females were equally abundant at light traps with or without pheromone traps. As expected, males were captured earlier in the season at pheromone traps than at light traps, and females occurred later in the season due to protandry. The onset of flight observed at light traps or pheromone traps in 2015 and 2016 occurred 10–15 days later than simulated predictions; caution is thus warranted as to conclusions derived on computer modeling of adult emergence.     

缨小蜂对颜色的选择性和粘卡技术的应用研究

本文比较了7种颜色的粘卡,在茭白田中对飞虱天敌缨小蜂（Anagrus spp.）的诱捕能力,结果表明,黄色粘卡对缨小蜂的诱捕量显著高于其它颜色的粘卡。缨小蜂对颜色的嗜好顺序为黄色＞蓝色＞蓝绿色＞绿色＞白色＞红色＞黑色。黄色粘卡在离地面40cm、70cm、100cm、130cm和160cm5个高度上,以70cm和100cm高度捕获的缨小蜂最多。黄色粘卡对缨小蜂的诱捕量在东、南、西、北四个方向差异不显著。一天中的不同时间段里,黄色粘卡所诱捕到的缨小蜂量以上午6：00至9：00最多。     

Developing a branch-mimicking trap for adult plum curculios

We conducted field and semi-field experiments to determine the most visually stimulating and acceptable version of a branch-mimicking trap (PVC cylinder topped with an inverted screen funnel) to capture adult plum curculios, Conotrachelus nenuphar (Herbst) (Coleoptera: Curculionidae) foraging within canopies of host trees. Cylinder traps (25 cm tall × 6 cm diam) coated with different colors of gloss or flat latex paint captured similar numbers of feral adults in field tests. Tall cylinder traps (50 cm tall × 6 cm diam) captured significantly more feral adults in field tests in 1999 than cylinder traps of lesser height and/or different diameter, and significantly more released adults arrived at traps with these dimensions compared to cylinder traps of lesser height in semi-field tests. In field and semi-field tests, respectively, significantly more adults were captured by and numerically more adults arrived at tall cylinder traps (50 cm tall × 6 cm diam) attached in an upright, standard position to a horizontal limb than attached at angles of 45°, 90°, 135°, or 180° to horizontal limbs.     

Almond seed wasp (Hymenoptera: Eurytomidae) sex pheromone: effect of trap type, trap position, blend ratio and time of the day on male attraction

Field trials were carried out in order to evaluate some of the factors affecting male response of the almond seed wasp, Eurytoma amygdali Enderlein, to traps baited with the alkadienes (Z,Z)-6,9-tricosadiene and (Z,Z)-6,9-pentacosadiene, the male attractant of this species. The trials were conducted in Latomia, Microthivae, Kanalia and Sykourion (Thessaly, Central Greece) during the 2004 growing season. In all regions, captures in traps baited with a 7:3 ratio of the above blend significantly and positively correlated with male emergence from infested almonds that had been placed in cages in the experimental fields. Traps baited with the 7:3 pheromone ratio were significantly more effective in capturing males than traps baited with the 1:1 ratio, supporting the hypothesis that (Z,Z)-6,9-tricosadiene is the main component of this attractant. Of four trap types tested, Rebel and Lasiotraps attracted significantly more males than Delta and Funnel traps. Height had no effect on trap efficiency; however, males were captured earlier in the day in traps placed 2.3 m above grown than in traps placed 1.3 m above grown. Most male activity was recorded between 10 and 12 h, but captures were continuously recorded during the entire monitoring interval from 6 to 17 h.