Astrocytic metabolic and inflammatory changes as a function of age

This study examines age‐dependent metabolic‐inflammatory axis in primary astrocytes isolated from brain cortices of 7‐, 13‐, and 18‐month‐old Sprague–Dawley male rats. Astrocytes showed an age‐dependent increase in mitochondrial oxidative metabolism respiring on glucose and/or pyruvate substrates; this increase in mitochondrial oxidative metabolism was accompanied by increases in COX3/18SrDNA values, thus suggesting an enhanced mitochondrial biogenesis. Enhanced mitochondrial respiration in astrocytes limits the substrate supply from astrocytes to neurons; this may be viewed as an adaptive mechanism to altered cellular inflammatory–redox environment with age. These metabolic changes were associated with an age‐dependent increase in hydrogen peroxide generation (largely ascribed to an enhanced expression of NOX2) and NFκB signaling in the cytosol as well as its translocation to the nucleus. Astrocytes also displayed augmented responses with age to inflammatory cytokines, IL‐1β, and TNFα. Activation of NFκB signaling resulted in increased expression of nitric oxide synthase 2 (inducible nitric oxide synthase), leading to elevated nitric oxide production. IL‐1β and TNFα treatment stimulated mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and mitochondrial biogenesis in astrocytes. It may be surmised that increased mitochondrial aerobic metabolism and inflammatory responses are interconnected and support the functionality switch of astrocytes, from neurotrophic to neurotoxic with age.     

Inhibitory effects of Bcl-2 on mitochondrial respiration

In contrast to the well-established anti-apoptotic effect of Bcl-2 protein, we have recently demonstrated that Bcl-2 overexpression by vaccinia virus causes apoptosis in BSC-40 cells, while it prevents apoptosis in HeLa G cells. Given the key role of mitochondria in the process of apoptosis, we focused on effects of Bcl-2 expression on mitochondrial energetics of these two cell lines. In this study we present data indicating that BSC-40 cells derive their ATP mainly from oxidative phosphorylation whereas HeLa G cells from glycolysis. More importantly, we show that in both cell lines, Bcl-2 inhibits mitochondrial respiration and causes a decrease of the ATP/ADP ratio. However, it appears that BSC-40 cells cannot sustain this decrease and die, while HeLa G cells survive, being adapted to the low ratio of ATP/ADP maintained by glycolysis. Based on this observation, we propose that the outcome of Bcl-2 expression is determined by the type of cellular ATP synthesis, namely that Bcl-2 causes apoptosis in cells relying on oxidative phosphorylation.     

Role of mitochondria in aspirin-induced apoptosis in human gastric epithelial cells

This study was undertaken to determine whether the Bcl-2 family proteins and Smac are regulators of aspirin-mediated apoptosis in a gastric mucosal cell line known as AGS cells. Cells were incubated with varying concentrations of acetylsalicylic acid (ASA; 2-40 mM), with or without preincubation of caspase inhibitors. Apoptosis was characterized by Hoechst staining and DNA-histone-associated complex formation. Antiapoptotic Bcl-2, proapoptotic Bax and Bid, Smac, and cytochrome-c oxidase (COX IV) were analyzed by Western blot analyses from cytosol and mitochondrial fractions. ASA downregulated Bcl-2 protein expression and induced Bax translocation into the mitochondria and cleavage of Bid. In contrast, expression of Smac was significantly decreased in mitochondrial fractions of ASA-treated cells. Bax and Bid involvement in apoptosis regulation was dependent on caspase activation, because caspase-8 inhibition suppressed Bax translocation and Bid processing. Caspase-9 inhibition prevented Smac release from mitochondria. Additionally, increased expression of the oxidative phosphorylation enzyme COX IV was observed in mitochondrial fractions exposed to ASA at concentrations >5 mM. Although caspase-8 inhibition had no effect on aspirin-induced apoptosis and DNA-histone complex formation, caspase-9 inhibition significantly decreased both of these events. We conclude that Bcl-2 protein family members and Smac regulate the apoptotic pathway in a caspase-dependent manner. Our results indicate also that mitochondrial integration and oxidative phosphorylation play a critical role in the pathogenesis of apoptosis in human gastric epithelial cells.     

Cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV is essential for assembly and respiratory function of the enzyme complex

Cytochrome c oxidase or complex IV, catalyzes the final step in mitochondrial electron transfer chain, and is regarded as one of the major regulation sites for oxidative phosphorylation. This enzyme is controlled by both nuclear and mitochondrial genomes. Among its 13 subunits, three are encoded by mitochondrial DNA and ten by nuclear DNA. In this work, an RNA interference approach was taken which led to the generation of mouse A9 cell derivatives with suppressed expression of nuclear-encoded subunit IV (COX IV) of this complex. The amounts of this subunit are decrease by 86% to 94% of normal level. A detail biosynthetic and functional analysis of several cell lines with suppressed COX IV expression revealed a loss of assembly of cytochrome c oxidase complex and, correspondingly, a reduction in cytochrome c oxidase-dependent respiration and total respiration. Furthermore, dysfunctional cytochrome c oxidase in the cells leads to a compromised mitochondrial membrane potential, a decreased ATP level, and failure to grow in galactose medium. Interestingly, suppression of COX IV expression also sensitizes the cells to apoptosis. These observations provide the evidence of the essential role of the COX IV subunit for a functional cytochrome c oxidase complex and also demonstrate a tight control of cytochrome c oxidase over oxidative phosphorylation. Finally, our results further shed some insights into the pathogenic mechanism of the diseases caused by dysfunctional cytochrome c oxidase complex.     

Inhibition of oxidative stress by coenzyme Q10 increases mitochondrial mass and improves bioenergetic function in optic nerve head astrocytes

Oxidative stress contributes to dysfunction of glial cells in the optic nerve head (ONH). However, the biological basis of the precise functional role of mitochondria in this dysfunction is not fully understood. Coenzyme Q10 (CoQ₁₀), an essential cofactor of the electron transport chain and a potent antioxidant, acts by scavenging reactive oxygen species (ROS) for protecting neuronal cells against oxidative stress in many neurodegenerative diseases. Here, we tested whether hydrogen peroxide (100 μM H₂O₂)-induced oxidative stress alters the mitochondrial network, oxidative phosphorylation (OXPHOS) complex (Cx) expression and bioenergetics, as well as whether CoQ₁₀ can ameliorate oxidative stress-mediated alterations in mitochondria of the ONH astrocytes in vitro. Oxidative stress triggered the activation of ONH astrocytes and the upregulation of superoxide dismutase 2 (SOD2) and heme oxygenase-1 (HO-1) protein expression in the ONH astrocytes. In contrast, CoQ₁₀ not only prevented activation of ONH astrocytes but also significantly decreased SOD2 and HO-1 protein expression in the ONH astrocytes against oxidative stress. Further, CoQ₁₀ prevented a significant loss of mitochondrial mass by increasing mitochondrial number and volume density and by preserving mitochondrial cristae structure, as well as promoted mitofilin and peroxisome-proliferator-activated receptor-γ coactivator-1 protein expression in the ONH astrocyte, suggesting an induction of mitochondrial biogenesis. Finally, oxidative stress triggered the upregulation of OXPHOS Cx protein expression, as well as reduction of cellular adeonsine triphosphate (ATP) production and increase of ROS generation in the ONH astocytes. However, CoQ₁₀ preserved OXPHOS protein expression and cellular ATP production, as well as decreased ROS generation in the ONH astrocytes. On the basis of these observations, we suggest that oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction or alteration may be an important pathophysiological mechanism in the dysfunction of ONH astrocytes. CoQ₁₀ may provide new therapeutic potentials and strategies for protecting ONH astrocytes against oxidative stress-mediated mitochondrial dysfunction or alteration in glaucoma and other optic neuropathies.     

Serine-70 phosphorylated Bcl-2 prevents oxidative stress-induced DNA damage by modulating the mitochondrial redox metabolism

Bcl-2 phosphorylation at serine-70 (S70pBcl2) confers resistance against drug-induced apoptosis. Nevertheless, its specific mechanism in driving drug-resistance remains unclear. We present evidence that S70pBcl2 promotes cancer cell survival by acting as a redox sensor and modulator to prevent oxidative stress-induced DNA damage and execution. Increased S70pBcl2 levels are inversely correlated with DNA damage in chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) and lymphoma patient-derived primary cells as well as in reactive oxygen species (ROS)- or chemotherapeutic drug-treated cell lines. Bioinformatic analyses suggest that S70pBcl2 is associated with lower median overall survival in lymphoma patients. Empirically, sustained expression of the redox-sensitive S70pBcl2 prevents oxidative stress-induced DNA damage and cell death by suppressing mitochondrial ROS production. Using cell lines and lymphoma primary cells, we further demonstrate that S70pBcl2 reduces the interaction of Bcl-2 with the mitochondrial complex-IV subunit-5A, thereby reducing mitochondrial complex-IV activity, respiration and ROS production. Notably, targeting S70pBcl2 with the phosphatase activator, FTY720, is accompanied by an enhanced drug-induced DNA damage and cell death in CLL primary cells. Collectively, we provide a novel facet of the anti-apoptotic Bcl-2 by demonstrating that its phosphorylation at serine-70 functions as a redox sensor to prevent drug-induced oxidative stress-mediated DNA damage and execution with potential therapeutic implications.     

Protein phosphorylation and prevention of cytochrome oxidase inhibition by ATP: coupled mechanisms of energy metabolism regulation

Rapid regulation of oxidative phosphorylation is crucial for mitochondrial adaptation to swift changes in fuels availability and energy demands. An intramitochondrial signaling pathway regulates cytochrome oxidase (COX), the terminal enzyme of the respiratory chain, through reversible phosphorylation. We find that PKA-mediated phosphorylation of a COX subunit dictates mammalian mitochondrial energy fluxes and identify the specific residue (S58) of COX subunit IV-1 (COXIV-1) that is involved in this mechanism of metabolic regulation. Using protein mutagenesis, molecular dynamics simulations, and induced fit docking, we show that mitochondrial energy metabolism regulation by phosphorylation of COXIV-1 is coupled with prevention of COX allosteric inhibition by ATP. This regulatory mechanism is essential for efficient oxidative metabolism and cell survival. We propose that S58 COXIV-1 phosphorylation has evolved as a metabolic switch that allows mammalian mitochondria to rapidly toggle between energy utilization and energy storage.     

Phosphorylation and inactivation of myeloid cell leukemia 1 by JNK in response to oxidative stress

Oxidative stress induces JNK activation, which leads to apoptosis through mitochondria-dependent caspase activation. However, little is known about the mechanism by which JNK alters mitochondrial function. In this study, we investigated the role of phosphorylation of myeloid cell leukemia 1 (Mcl-1), an anti-apoptotic member of the Bcl-2 family, in oxidative stress-induced apoptosis. We found that JNK phosphorylated Ser-121 and Thr-163 of Mcl-1 in response to stimulation with H(2)O(2) and that transfection of unphosphorylatable Mcl-1 resulted in an enhanced anti-apoptotic activity in response to stimulation with H(2)O(2). JNK-dependent phosphorylation and thus inactivation of Mcl-1 may be one of the mechanisms through which oxidative stress induces cellular damage.     

Air pollution induces enhanced mitochondrial oxidative stress in cystic fibrosis airway epithelium

We studied the effects of airborne particulate matters (PM) on cystic fibrosis (CF) epithelium. We noted that PM enhanced human CF bronchial epithelial apoptosis, activated caspase-9 and PARP-1; and reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. Mitochondrial inhibitors (4,4-diisothiocyanatostilbene-2,2'disulfonic acid, rotenone and thenoyltrifluoroacetone) blocked PM-induced generation of reactive oxygen species and apoptosis. PM upregulated pro-apoptotic Bad, Bax, p53 and p21; and enhanced mitochondrial localization of Bax. The anti-apoptotic Bcl-2, Bcl-xl, Mcl-1 and Xiap remained unchanged; however, overexpression of Bcl-xl blocked PM-induced apoptosis. Accordingly, we provide the evidence that PM enhances oxidative stress and mitochondrial signaling mediated apoptosis via the modulation of Bcl family proteins in CF.     

The effect of training on the expression of mitochondrial biogenesis- and apoptosis-related proteins in skeletal muscle of patients with mtDNA defects

Mitochondrial myopathy patients (MMPs) have impaired oxidative phosphorylation and exercise intolerance. Endurance training of MMPs improves exercise tolerance, but also increases mutational load. To assess the regulation of mitochondrial content in MMPs, we measured proteins involved in 1) biogenesis, 2) oxidative stress, and 3) apoptosis in MMPs and healthy controls (HCs) both before and after endurance training. Before training, MMPs had a greater mitochondrial content, along with a 1.4-fold (P < 0.05) higher expression of the biogenesis regulator peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma coactivator-1alpha (PGC-1alpha). The DNA repair enzyme 8-oxoguanine DNA glycolase-1 (OGG-1), the antioxidant manganese superoxide dismutase (MnSOD), and the apoptotic proteins AIF and Bcl-2 were higher in MMPs compared with HCs. Aconitase, an enzyme sensitive to oxidative stress, was 52% lower (P < 0.05) in MMPs when calculated based on an estimate of mitochondrial volume and oxidative stress-induced protein modifications tended to be higher in MMPs compared with HCs. Endurance training (ET) induced increases in mitochondrial content in both HC subjects and MMPs, but there was no effect of training on the regulatory proteins Tfam or PGC-1alpha. In MMPs, training induced a selective reduction of OGG-1, an increase in MnSOD, and a reduction in aconitase activity. Thus, before training, MMPs exhibited an adaptive response of nuclear proteins indicative of a compensatory increase in mitochondrial content. Following training, several parallel adaptations occurred in MMPs and HCs, which may contribute to previously observed functional improvements of exercise in MMPs. However, our results indicate that muscle from MMPs may be exposed to greater levels of oxidative stress during the course of training. Further investigation is required to evaluate the long-term benefits of endurance training as a therapeutic intervention for mitochondrial myopathy patients.     

OXPHOS supercomplexes as a hallmark of the mitochondrial phenotype of adipogenic differentiated human MSCs

Mitochondria are essential organelles with multiple functions, especially in energy metabolism. Recently, an increasing number of data has highlighted the role of mitochondria for cellular differentiation processes. Metabolic differences between stem cells and mature derivatives require an adaptation of mitochondrial function during differentiation. In this study we investigated alterations of the mitochondrial phenotype of human mesenchymal stem cells undergoing adipogenic differentiation. Maturation of adipocytes is accompanied by mitochondrial biogenesis and an increase of oxidative metabolism. Adaptation of the mt phenotype during differentiation is reflected by changes in the distribution of the mitochondrial network as well as marked alterations of gene expression and organization of the oxidative phosphorylation system (OXPHOS). Distinct differences in the supramolecular organization forms of cytochrome c oxidase (COX) were detected using 2D blue native (BN)-PAGE analysis. Most remarkably we observed a significant increase in the abundance of OXPHOS supercomplexes in mitochondria, emphasizing the change of the mitochondrial phenotype during adipogenic differentiation.     

Protection Against Ischemic Brain Injury by Inhibition of Mitochondrial Oxidative Stress

Mitochondria are both targets and sources of oxidative stress. This dual relationship is particularly evident in experimental paradigms modeling ischemic brain injury. One mitochondrial metabolic enzyme that is particularly sensitive to oxidative inactivation is pyruvate dehydrogenase. This reaction is extremely important in the adult CNS that relies very heavily on carbohydrate metabolism, as it represents the sole bridge between anaerobic and aerobic metabolism. Oxidative injury to this enzyme and to other metabolic enzymes proximal to the electron transport chain may be responsible for the oxidized shift in cellular redox state that is observed during approximately the first hour of cerebral reperfusion. In addition to impairing cerebral energy metabolism, oxidative stress is a potent activator of apoptosis. The mechanisms responsible for this activation are poorly understood but likely involve the expression of p53 and possibly direct effects of reactive oxygen species on mitochondrial membrane proteins and lipids. Mitochondria also normally generate reactive oxygen species and contribute significantly to the elevated net production of these destructive agents during reperfusion. Approaches to inhibiting pathologic mitochondrial generation of reactive oxygen species include mild uncoupling, pharmacologic inhibition of the membrane permeability transition, and simply lowering the concentration of inspired oxygen. Antideath mitochondrial proteins of the Bcl-2 family also confer cellular resistance to oxidative stress, paradoxically through stimulation of mitochondrial free radical generation and secondary upregulation of antioxidant gene expression.     

Interaction of mitochondrially bound rat brain hexokinase with intramitochondrial compartments of ATP generated by oxidative phosphorylation and creatine kinase.

Previous work led to the conclusion that, during oxidative phosphorylation, mitochondrially bound hexokinase (ATP:D-hexose 6-phosphotransferase, EC 2.7.1.1) from rat brain was dependent on intramitochondrially compartmented ATP as substrate. The present study demonstrated that, when oxidative phosphorylation was functioning concurrently, mitochondrial creatine kinase could also generate intramitochondrial ATP serving as substrate for hexokinase. In the absence of concurrent oxidative phosphorylation, the kinetics of glucose phosphorylation with ATP generated by creatine kinase were not consistent with the supply of ATP from a saturable intramitochondrial compartment as formed during oxidative phosphorylation. Evidence for intramitochondrially compartmented ATP, generated by creatine kinase, was obtained; this was distinct from compartmented ATP generated by oxidative phosphorylation in terms of kinetics of generation of the compartment and its capacity, sensitivity to release by carboxyatractyloside, and sensitivity to disruption by digitonin. That oxidative phosphorylation did induce a dependence on intramitochondrial ATP as a substrate was further indicated by the observation that, although the initial rate of glucose phosphorylation by mitochondrial hexokinase depended on the extramitochondrial concentration of ATP present at the time oxidative phosphorylation was initiated, a final steady state rate of glucose phosphorylation was attained that was independent of extramitochondrial ATP levels. These and previous results emphasize the probable importance of nucleotide compartmentation in regulation of cerebral glycolytic and oxidative metabolism.     

酵母线粒体ATP合酶生物合成及组装机制研究进展

线粒体ATP合酶是线粒体氧化磷酸化的关键酶,其功能缺陷会导致能量代谢障碍相关的线粒体疾病。线粒体ATP合酶是由多个亚基组成的蛋白复合物,其生物合成和组装是个复杂的生物过程。酵母是研究线粒体ATP合酶结构、生物合成和组装机制的模式实验材料之一,且相关研究取得了很多进展。本文概述了国内外用酿酒酵母研究线粒体ATP合酶的结构、调控线粒体ATP合酶亚基生物合成和组装的辅助蛋白及合酶的模块化组装过程的研究进展,以期为线粒体ATP合酶的工作机制及相关线粒体疾病的研究提供理论借鉴和参考依据。     

Glutathionylation of Adenine Nucleotide Translocase Induced by Carbon Monoxide Prevents Mitochondrial Membrane Permeabilization and Apoptosis

The present work demonstrates the ability of CO to prevent apoptosis in a primary culture of astrocytes. For the first time, the antiapoptotic behavior can be clearly attributed to the inhibition of mitochondrial membrane permeabilization (MMP), a key event in the intrinsic apoptotic pathway. In isolated non-synaptic mitochondria, CO partially inhibits (i) loss of potential, (ii) the opening of a nonspecific pore through the inner membrane, (iii) swelling, and (iv) cytochrome c release, which are induced by calcium, diamide, or atractyloside (a ligand of ANT). CO directly modulates ANT function by enhancing ADP/ATP exchange and prevents its pore-forming activity. Additionally, CO induces reactive oxygen species (ROS) generation, and its prevention by β-carotene decreases CO cytoprotection in intact cells as well as in isolated mitochondria, revealing the key role of ROS. On the other hand, CO induces a slight increase in mitochondrial oxidized glutathione, which is essential for apoptosis modulation by (i) delaying astrocytic apoptosis, (ii) decreasing MMP, and (iii) enhancing ADP/ATP translocation activity of ANT. Moreover, CO and GSSG trigger ANT glutathionylation, a post-translational process regulating protein function in response to redox cellular changes. In conclusion, CO protects astrocytes from apoptosis by preventing MMP, acting on ANT (glutathionylation and inhibition of its pore activity) via a preconditioning-like process mediated by ROS and GSSG.     

Glial perspectives of metabolic states during cerebral hypoxia--calcium regulation and metabolic energy

Cooperation between astrocytes and neurons is a unique interaction between two highly specialized cell types of the brain. Therefore, lack of nutrient supply during ischemia requires tight coordination of metabolism between astrocytes and neurons to keep the brain functions intact. To understand the impact of energy limitation on astrocytes, the functions of astrocytes have to be considered: (i) supplementation of neuronal cells, (ii) modulation of the extracellular milieu, mainly of the glutamate level, and (iii) elimination of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In cultured astrocytes and neurons inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation, using rotenone, was tested. Interestingly, this had only a negligible effect on Ca2+ homeostasis in astrocytes, even in combination with a severe glutamate stress. In contrast, in neurons glutamate in the presence of rotenone induced Ca2+ deregulation. Ca2+ homeostasis is very critical for cell survival. A massive and prolonged Ca2+ rise will lead to deregulation of many processes in such a way that the cells affected can hardly survive. Ca2+ homeostasis depends on the energy-consuming processes, which maintain the steep gradient between intracellular and extracellular Ca2+ concentration. Deprivation of oxygen and glucose during ischemia leads to a depletion of ATP in the brain, due to inhibited glycolytic and mitochondrial activity, whereas energy-consuming processes like ion pumps drain the ATP pools. On the other hand, specific mechanisms can protect brain structures against the massive insult of ischemia. Glycogen, stored in astrocytes, can maintain both neurons and astrocytes alive during short limitation of oxygen and glucose. Moreover, astrocytes can fuel ATP generation by providing lactate for neurons.     

Physical exercise regulates p53 activity targeting SCO2 and increases mitochondrial COX biogenesis in cardiac muscle with age

The purpose of this study was to outline the timelines of mitochondrial function, oxidative stress and cytochrome c oxidase complex (COX) biogenesis in cardiac muscle with age, and to evaluate whether and how these age-related changes were attenuated by exercise. ICR/CD-1 mice were treated with pifithrin-μ (PFTμ), sacrificed and studied at different ages; ICR/CD-1 mice at younger or older ages were randomized to endurance treadmill running and sedentary conditions. The results showed that mRNA expression of p53 and its protein levels in mitochondria increased with age in cardiac muscle, accompanied by increased mitochondrial oxidative stress, reduced expression of COX subunits and assembly proteins, and decreased expression of most markers in mitochondrial biogenesis. Most of these age-related changes including p53 activity targeting cytochrome oxidase deficient homolog 2 (SCO2), p53 translocation to mitochondria and COX biogenesis were attenuated by exercise in older mice. PFTμ, an inhibitor blocking p53 translocation to mitochondria, increased COX biogenesis in older mice, but not in young mice. Our data suggest that physical exercise attenuates age-related changes in mitochondrial COX biogenesis and p53 activity targeting SCO2 and mitochondria, and thereby induces antisenescent and protective effects in cardiac muscle.