Taxonomic relationships among Clostridium novyi Types A and B, Clostridium haemolyticum and Clostridium botulinum type C

The present study was undertaken to examine the genetic relationships among the closely related species, Clostridium novyi types A and B, C. haemolyticum and C. botulinum type C. These species were tested for DNA-DNA homology and thermostability of DNA duplexes and sorted into three genetically related groups: I, C. novyi type A; II, C. novyi type B, C. haemolyticum and one C. botulinum type C strain (Stockholm); III, the remaining C. botulinum type C strains. A few biochemical criteria corresponding to the genetic differences were recommended to differentiate each group. These studies imply that C. haemolyticum might be considered as C. novyi type D and that there are two genetically different groups in C. botulinum type C.     

Cloning and molecular characterization of the beta toxin (phospholipase C) gene of Clostridium haemolyticum

The phospholipase C (PLPC) gene from Clostridium haemolyticum was amplified using the polymerase chain reaction. Primers were selected from a consensus sequence of closely related clostridial PLPC genes and used to amplify an 871-base pair internal segment of the gene. The internal sequence was used to design nested primers that, together with adapter-specific primers, were used to amplify upstream and downstream sequences. The sequences of upstream and downstream segments were aligned with the internal segment to obtain the entire gene sequence. Primers were selected from the aligned sequence, and the entire gene was amplified, and the PCR product was inserted by ligatation into the pCR 2.1 plasmid. An open reading frame that encodes a 399-amino acid protein, containing a 27-amino acid signal sequence, was identified (GenBank Accession Number AF525415). The molecular weight of the active protein was 42869 Da. A 16-amino acid N-terminal sequence, determined by Edman degradation, exactly matched the putative amino acid sequence of the gene product. Together, N-terminal peptide sequencing and tryptic digestion followed by MALDI-ToF mass spectroscopy verified 48% of the amino acid sequences of the active beta toxin. Comparison of the nucleotide and amino acid sequences with Gene-bank databases demonstrated that the beta toxin of C. haemolyticum exhibits high homology with other bacterial PLPCs. The N-terminal portion of the beta toxin contains zinc-binding residues common to clostridial and other bacterial PLPCs, and it shows 34% homology to the N-terminal domain of bovine arachidonate 5-lipoxygenase. The C-terminal domain of the beta toxin protein shows considerable homology with the C-terminal domains of C. novyi type A PLPC, C. perfringens alpha toxin, C. bifermentens PLPC, although the percent identity between the N-terminal regions is much higher overall than that in the C-terminal domain.     

Complete genome sequence of Arcanobacterium haemolyticum type strain (11018)

Arcanobacterium haemolyticum (ex MacLean et al. 1946) Collins et al. 1983 is the type species of the genus Arcanobacterium, which belongs to the family Actinomycetaceae. The strain is of interest because it is an obligate parasite of the pharynx of humans and farm animal; occasionally, it causes pharyngeal or skin lesions. It is a Gram-positive, nonmotile and non-sporulating bacterium. The strain described in this study was isolated from infections amongst American soldiers of certain islands of the North and West Pacific. This is the first completed sequence of a member of the genus Arcanobacterium and the ninth type strain genome from the family Actinomycetaceae. The 1,986,154 bp long genome with its 1,821 protein-coding and 64 RNA genes is a part of the Genomic Encyclopedia of Bacteria and Archaea project.     

Oxygen Sensitivity of Various Anaerobic Bacteria

Anaerobes differ in their sensitivity to oxygen, as two patterns were recognizable in the organisms included in this study. Strict anaerobes were species incapable of agar surface growth at pO(2) levels greater than 0.5%. Species that were found to be strict anaerobes were Treponema macrodentium, Treponema denticola, Treponema oralis n. sp., Clostridium haemolyticum, Selenomonas ruminatium, Butyrivibrio fibrisolvens, Succinivibrio dextrinosolvens, and Lachnospira multiparus. Moderate anaerobes would include those species capable of growth in the presence of oxygen levels as high as 2 to 8%. The moderate anaerobes could be exposed to room atmosphere for 60 to 90 min without appreciable loss of viability. Species considered as moderate anaerobes were Bacteroides fragilis, B. melaninogenicus, B. oralis, Fusobacteria nucleatum, Clostridium novyi type A, and Peptostreptococcus elsdenii. The recognition of at least two general types of anaerobes would seem to have practical import in regard to the primary isolation of anaerobes from source material.     

Comparison of Schaedler Agar and Trypticase Soy-Yeast Extract Agar for the Cultivation of Anaerobic Bacteria

Schaedler agar (SA) and Trypticase soy-yeast extract agar (TSYEA), both supplemented with rabbit blood (5%, v/v) and menadione (0.5 mg/liter), were compared with respect to quantitative recovery, quality of growth, and rapidity of growth of selected anaerobic bacteria. The media were stored for 2 to 4 days prior to use in an anaerobic glove box, where all subsequent bacteriological procedures were performed. After 24 hr of incubation, colonies of Clostridium cadaveris (C. capitovale), C. haemolyticum, C. novyi A, and C. perfringens were larger on SA than on TSYEA, and the appearance of C. novyi B colonies on SA at 24 hr antedated their appearance on TSYEA. Quantitative recovery of C. novyi B was improved on SA; recovery of the other clostridia tested was comparable on the two media (inconclusive results were obtained with C. novyi A). Rough colonial types of some of the clostridia emerged on SA. No appreciable differences in results with the two media were noted for Bacteroides fragilis, B. melaninogenicus, or Fusobacterium fusiforme.     

Characterization of a Chromobacterium haemolyticum population from a natural tropical lake

Aim: To study genetic diversity of Chromobacterium haemolyticum isolates recovered from a natural tropical lake. Methods and Results: A set of 31 isolates were recovered from a bacterial freshwater community by conventional plating methods and subjected to genetic and phenotypic characterization. The 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene phylogeny revealed that the isolates were related most closely with C. haemolyticum. In addition to the molecular data, our isolates exhibited strong β‐haemolytic activity, were nonviolacein producers and utilized i‐inositol, d ‐mannitol and d ‐sorbitol in contrast with the other known chromobacteria. Evaluation of the genetic diversity in the 16S rRNA gene, tRNA intergenic spacers (tDNA) and 16S‐23S internal transcribed spacers (ITS) unveiled different levels of genetic heterogeneity in the population, which were also observed with repetitive extragenic palindromic (rep)‐PCR genomic fingerprinting using the BOX‐AR1 primer. tDNA‐ and ITS‐PCR analyses were partially congruent with the 16S rRNA gene phylogeny. The isolates exhibited high resistance to β‐lactamic antibiotics. Conclusion: The population genetic heterogeneity was revealed by 16S rRNA gene sequence, ITS and BOX‐PCR analysis. Significance and Impact of the Study: This study provides for the first time an insight into the genetic diversity of phylogenetically close isolates to C. haemolyticum species.     

风险预判与主动干预在综合ICU患者多重耐药菌医院感染防控中的关键作用研究

目的:阐述风险预判与主动干预的综合防控措施对综合重症监护病房(GICU)患者多重耐药菌(MDRO)医院感染的防控效果。方法:对2018年1月~2019年12月入住GICU病房(分为A、B两个病区)>48 h的737例患者进行回顾性调查,其中A病区监测患者286例,MDRO防控参照院感科常规制度要求;B病区监测患者451例,MDRO防控采用入GICU时预判患者感染风险,再根据感染风险及患者自身状况对患者采取鼻腔去定植或肠道去定植的综合防控策略。用卡方检验比较两病区患者的感染结果与MDRO感染菌种分布情况,以验证不同防控策略的效果。结果:本研究共监测GICU住院患者737例,研究期间共发生MDRO医院感染85例。其中A病区监测患者286例,MDRO医院感染66例,感染率为23.1%;B病区监测患者451例,MDRO医院感染19例,感染率为4.2%,低于A病区(P<0.001)。单菌种感染结果显示,两病区感染菌种分布存在差异,CR-AB、CR-PA和MASR的感染率都为B病区低于A病区,两病区患者的共患病类型无差异。说明B病区MDRO防控效果优于A病区。结论:感染风险预判与主动干预的综合防控策略,有利于降低GICU患者MDRO医院感染发病率。     

Quantitative subcellular proteome and secretome profiling of influenza A virus-infected human primary macrophages

Influenza A viruses are important pathogens that cause acute respiratory diseases and annual epidemics in humans. Macrophages recognize influenza A virus infection with their pattern recognition receptors, and are involved in the activation of proper innate immune response. Here, we have used high-throughput subcellular proteomics combined with bioinformatics to provide a global view of host cellular events that are activated in response to influenza A virus infection in human primary macrophages. We show that viral infection regulates the expression and/or subcellular localization of more than one thousand host proteins at early phases of infection. Our data reveals that there are dramatic changes in mitochondrial and nuclear proteomes in response to infection. We show that a rapid cytoplasmic leakage of lysosomal proteins, including cathepsins, followed by their secretion, contributes to inflammasome activation and apoptosis seen in the infected macrophages. Also, our results demonstrate that P2X₇ receptor and src tyrosine kinase activity are essential for inflammasome activation during influenza A virus infection. Finally, we show that influenza A virus infection is associated with robust secretion of different danger-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) suggesting an important role for DAMPs in host response to influenza A virus infection. In conclusion, our high-throughput quantitative proteomics study provides important new insight into host-response against influenza A virus infection in human primary macrophages.     

APOBEC3A is a specific inhibitor of the early phases of HIV-1 infection in myeloid cells

Myeloid cells play numerous roles in HIV-1 pathogenesis serving as a vehicle for viral spread and as a viral reservoir. Yet, cells of this lineage generally resist HIV-1 infection when compared to cells of other lineages, a phenomenon particularly acute during the early phases of infection. Here, we explore the role of APOBEC3A on these steps. APOBEC3A is a member of the APOBEC3 family that is highly expressed in myeloid cells, but so far lacks a known antiviral effect against retroviruses. Using ectopic expression of APOBEC3A in established cell lines and specific silencing in primary macrophages and dendritic cells, we demonstrate that the pool of APOBEC3A in target cells inhibits the early phases of HIV-1 infection and the spread of replication-competent R5-tropic HIV-1, specifically in cells of myeloid origins. In these cells, APOBEC3A affects the amount of vDNA synthesized over the course of infection. The susceptibility to the antiviral effect of APOBEC3A is conserved among primate lentiviruses, although the viral protein Vpx coded by members of the SIV(SM)/HIV-2 lineage provides partial protection from APOBEC3A during infection. Our results indicate that APOBEC3A is a previously unrecognized antiviral factor that targets primate lentiviruses specifically in myeloid cells and that acts during the early phases of infection directly in target cells. The findings presented here open up new venues on the role of APOBEC3A during HIV infection and pathogenesis, on the role of the cellular context in the regulation of the antiviral activities of members of the APOBEC3 family and more generally on the natural functions of APOBEC3A.     

HSV neutralization by the microbicidal candidate C5A

Genital herpes is a major risk factor in acquiring human immunodeficiency virus type-1 (HIV-1) infection and is caused by both Herpes Simplex virus type 1 (HSV-1) and HSV-2. The amphipathic peptide C5A, derived from the non-structural hepatitis C virus (HCV) protein 5A, was shown to prevent HIV-1 infection but neither influenza nor vesicular stomatitis virus infections. Here we investigated the antiviral function of C5A on HSV infections. C5A efficiently inhibited both HSV-1 and HSV-2 infection in epithelial cells in vitro as well as in an ex vivo epidermal infection model. C5A destabilized the integrity of the viral HSV membrane. Furthermore, drug resistant HSV strains were inhibited by this peptide. Notably, C5A-mediated neutralization of HSV-1 prevented HIV-1 transmission. An in vitro HIV-1 transmigration assay was developed using primary genital epithelial cells and HSV infection increased HIV-1 transmigration. Treatment with C5A abolished HIV-1 transmigration by preventing HSV infection and by preserving the integrity of the genital epithelium that was severely compromised by HSV infection. In conclusion, this study demonstrates that C5A represents a multipurpose microbicide candidate, which neutralizes both HIV-1 and HSV, and which may interfere with HIV-1 transmission through the genital epithelium.     

Therapeutic Effects of α1-Antitrypsin on Psedumonas aeruginosa Infection in ENaC Transgenic Mice

Cystic fibrosis (CF) is a genetic disease with many airway pathological features, including aberrant epithelial sodium channel (ENaC) function, persistent Pseudomonas aeruginosa (PA) infection and neutrophil-dominant inflammation. PA infection in CF airways is difficult to treat due to antibiotic resistance and other factors. Recently, α1-antitrypsin (A1AT) have been shown to be effective to reduce CF airway PA infection. However, there is a dearth of studies about the mechanisms underlying A1AT’s therapeutic effects. The goal of our study is to provide an animal model of A1AT therapy in CF lungs. ENaC transgenic mice with PA infection were used as a CF-like model. Mice were intratracheally treated with PA or saline (control) in a fibrin plug. Two hours after PA infection, aerosolized A1AT were delivered to mouse lungs once daily. At day 1 and day 3 post PA infection, lung inflammation, PA load as well as host defence protein short palate, lung, and nasal epithelium clone 1 (SPLUNC1) were measured. At day 1 post PA infection when A1AT was delivered once to ENaC transgenic mouse lungs, A1AT did not reduce lung inflammation (e.g., neutrophils) and PA load. However, at day 3 post PA infection when ENaC transgenic mice received three repeated A1AT treatments, a significant decrease in airspace inflammation and PA load was observed. Although A1AT prevented the loss of SPLUNC1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid of PA-infected wild-type mice, it did not restore SPLUNC1 levels in ENaC transgenic mice. Our current study has provided a valid and quick A1AT therapeutic model in CF-like lungs that may serve as a platform for future mechanistic studies about how A1AT exerts beneficial effects in human CF patients.     

Inflammatory Genital Infections Mitigate a Severe Genetic Bottleneck in Heterosexual Transmission of Subtype A and C HIV-1

The HIV-1 epidemic in sub-Saharan Africa is driven largely by heterosexual transmission of non-subtype B viruses, of which subtypes C and A are predominant. Previous studies of subtype B and subtype C transmission pairs have suggested that a single variant from the chronically infected partner can establish infection in their newly infected partner. However, in subtype A infected individuals from a sex worker cohort and subtype B individuals from STD clinics, infection was frequently established by multiple variants. This study examined over 1750 single-genome amplified viral sequences derived from epidemiologically linked subtype C and subtype A transmission pairs very early after infection. In 90% (18/20) of the pairs, HIV-1 infection is initiated by a single viral variant that is derived from the quasispecies of the transmitting partner. In addition, the virus initiating infection in individuals who were infected by someone other than their spouse was characterized to determine if genital infections mitigated the severe genetic bottleneck observed in a majority of epidemiologically linked heterosexual HIV-1 transmission events. In nearly 50% (3/7) of individuals infected by someone other than their spouse, multiple genetic variants from a single individual established infection. A statistically significant association was observed between infection by multiple genetic variants and an inflammatory genital infection in the newly infected individual. Thus, in the vast majority of HIV-1 transmission events in cohabiting heterosexual couples, a single genetic variant establishes infection. Nevertheless, this severe genetic bottleneck can be mitigated by the presence of inflammatory genital infections in the at risk partner, suggesting that this restriction on genetic diversity is imposed in large part by the mucosal barrier.     

Increase human metapneumovirus mediated morbidity following pandemic influenza infection

Human metapneumovirus (hMPV) is a recently discovered respiratory pathogen, infecting mainly young children. The infected patients suffer from influenza like symptoms (ILS). In Israel the virus is mainly circulating in February to March. Here we report on an increased rate of hMPV infection in the winter season of 2009-10. The 2009-10 infection had several unique characteristics when compared to previous seasons; it started around January and a large number of infants were infected by the virus. Genetic analysis based on the viral L and F genes of hMPV showed that only subtypes A2 and B2 circulated in Israel. Additionally, we have identified a novel variant of hMPV within subgroup A2b, which subdivide it into A2b1 and A2b2. Finally, we showed that the hMPV infection was detected in the country soon after the infection with the pandemic influenza virus had declined, that infection with the pandemic influenza virus was dominant and that it interfered with the infection of other respiratory viruses. Thus, we suggest that the unusual increase in hMPV infection observed in 2009-10 was due to the appearance of the pandemic influenza virus in the winter season prior to 2009-10.     

海南地区螺旋粉虱三类次级内共生菌的检测

螺旋粉虱Aleurodicus dispersus Russell是一种重要的农林害虫。本研究分别利用次级内共生菌Cardinium和Arsenophonus的16S rDNA和Wolbachia wsp基因对海南省16地区的螺旋粉虱的3种次级内共生菌Cardinium, Arsenophonus和Wolbachia感染情况及相关基因序列进行了测定和分析。3种次级内共生菌Cardinium, Arsenophonus和Wolbachia检测结果表明, Cardinium和Arsenophonus均可感染海南地区的螺旋粉虱, 其中乐东、 陵水和澄迈3个地区所有寄主上的螺旋粉虱的Arsenophonus感染率为100%, 三亚、 琼中和临高部分寄主上的螺旋粉虱的Arsenophonus感染率为66.7%, 而儋州、 五指山和万宁3个地区的螺旋粉虱未发现被Arsenophonus感染; 三亚的番石榴上的螺旋粉虱的Cardinium感染率为100%, 琼海白沙的印度紫檀上螺旋粉虱的Cardinium感染率为100%, 其他寄主上的感染率均小于66.7%; 在所检测的43个螺旋粉虱种群中, 40和31个种群中分别检测出有Arsenophonus 和Cardinium感染, 种群感染率分别为93.0%和72.1%; 在所有检测的个体中, 120个个体中有105个感染Arsenophonus, 93个个体中有70个感染Cardinium, 个体感染率分别为87.5% 和75.3%; 在检测的所有样本中, 只有三亚印度紫檀上的螺旋粉虱检测到Wolbachia, 种群感染率为2.3%, 个体感染率仅为0.8%。这些检测结果表明, 海南地区螺旋粉虱次级内共生菌Arsenophonus的感染率高于Cardinium的感染率, Wolbachia的感染率极低。序列分析表明, 海南不同螺旋粉虱种群的Cardinium的16S rDNA序列一致, 而且与烟粉虱的Cardinium 16S rDNA序列一致性很高, 为97.6%; 不同螺旋粉虱种群的Arsenophonus的16S rDNA序列也完全一致, 其与西班牙加那利群岛螺旋粉虱的Arsenophonus的16S rDNA序列一致性较高, 为85.1%。此外, Wolbachia wsp基因序列分析表明, 海南螺旋粉虱的Wolbachia为B组, 这是国内螺旋粉虱感染Wolbachia的首次报道。     

A20 Deficiency in Lung Epithelial Cells Protects against Influenza A Virus Infection

A20 negatively regulates multiple inflammatory signalling pathways. We here addressed the role of A20 in club cells (also known as Clara cells) of the bronchial epithelium in their response to influenza A virus infection. Club cells provide a niche for influenza virus replication, but little is known about the functions of these cells in antiviral immunity. Using airway epithelial cell-specific A20 knockout (A20^AEC-KO) mice, we show that A20 in club cells critically controls innate immune responses upon TNF or double stranded RNA stimulation. Surprisingly, A20^AEC-KO mice are better protected against influenza A virus challenge than their wild type littermates. This phenotype is not due to decreased viral replication. Instead host innate and adaptive immune responses and lung damage are reduced in A20^AEC-KO mice. These attenuated responses correlate with a dampened cytotoxic T cell (CTL) response at later stages during infection, indicating that A20^AEC-KO mice are better equipped to tolerate Influenza A virus infection. Expression of the chemokine CCL2 (also named MCP-1) is particularly suppressed in the lungs of A20^AEC-KO mice during later stages of infection. When A20^AEC-KO mice were treated with recombinant CCL2 the protective effect was abrogated demonstrating the crucial contribution of this chemokine to the protection of A20^AEC-KO mice to Influenza A virus infection. Taken together, we propose a mechanism of action by which A20 expression in club cells controls inflammation and antiviral CTL responses in response to influenza virus infection.     

Role of the vacuolar-ATPase in Sindbis virus infection

Bafilomycin A(1) is a specific inhibitor of the vacuolar-ATPase (V-ATPase), which is responsible for pH homeostasis of the cell and for the acidification of endosomes. Bafilomycin A(1) has been commonly used as a method of inhibition of infection by viruses known or suspected to follow the path of receptor-mediated endocytosis and low-pH-mediated membrane fusion. The exact method of entry for Sindbis virus, the prototype alphavirus, remains undetermined. To further investigate the role of the V-ATPase in Sindbis virus infection, the effects of bafilomycin A(1) on the infection of BHK and insect cells by Sindbis virus were studied. Bafilomycin A(1) was found to block the expression of a virus-encoded reporter gene in both infection and transfection of BHK cells. The inhibitory effects of bafilomycin A(1) were found to be reversible. The results suggest that in BHK cells in the presence of bafilomycin A(1), virus RNA enters the cell and is translated, but replication and proper folding of the product proteins requires the function of the V-ATPase. Bafilomycin A(1) had no significant effect on the outcome of infection in insect cells.     

The S100A10 Subunit of the Annexin A2 Heterotetramer Facilitates L2-Mediated Human Papillomavirus Infection

Mucosotropic, high-risk human papillomaviruses (HPV) are sexually transmitted viruses that are causally associated with the development of cervical cancer. The most common high-risk genotype, HPV16, is an obligatory intracellular virus that must gain entry into host epithelial cells and deliver its double stranded DNA to the nucleus. HPV capsid proteins play a vital role in these steps. Despite the critical nature of these capsid protein-host cell interactions, the precise cellular components necessary for HPV16 infection of epithelial cells remains unknown. Several neutralizing epitopes have been identified for the HPV16 L2 minor capsid protein that can inhibit infection after initial attachment of the virus to the cell surface, which suggests an L2-specific secondary receptor or cofactor is required for infection, but so far no specific L2-receptor has been identified. Here, we demonstrate that the annexin A2 heterotetramer (A2t) contributes to HPV16 infection and co-immunoprecipitates with HPV16 particles on the surface of epithelial cells in an L2-dependent manner. Inhibiting A2t with an endogenous annexin A2 ligand, secretory leukocyte protease inhibitor (SLPI), or with an annexin A2 antibody significantly reduces HPV16 infection. With electron paramagnetic resonance, we demonstrate that a previously identified neutralizing epitope of L2 (aa 108-120) specifically interacts with the S100A10 subunit of A2t. Additionally, mutation of this L2 region significantly reduces binding to A2t and HPV16 pseudovirus infection. Furthermore, downregulation of A2t with shRNA significantly decreases capsid internalization and infection by HPV16. Taken together, these findings indicate that A2t contributes to HPV16 internalization and infection of epithelial cells and this interaction is dependent on the presence of the L2 minor capsid protein.     

单核细胞抗烟曲霉感染作用的研究进展

烟曲霉是临床常见的机会性致病真菌,好发于免疫低下人群,常因吸入孢子导致肺部感染,治疗困难。烟曲霉的致病性与其较强的生存能力有关,但主要取决于宿主免疫状态,尤其是天然免疫功能。单核细胞是天然免疫的重要效应细胞,可分化为树突细胞和巨噬细胞。依据其表面分子分型,单核细胞功能上分别以吞噬抗原、呈递抗原和杀伤抗原为特点,在抗烟曲霉感染中具有较高的抵御能力和诊断价值。现阶段研究基于不断发展的荧光标记、灌流培养、光谱成像、基因敲除等技术,通过体外细胞实验和小鼠体内实验,观察到单核细胞与烟曲霉相互作用。在烟曲霉孢子入侵早期,单核细胞即启动基因表达,直接杀灭孢子,也可通过增强中性粒细胞杀孢子活性间接参与抗感染免疫调节,其中白细胞介素家族可能是关键信号分子。