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1.
Aim, Scope and Background The interest in environmental questions has increased enormously during the last decade. Environmental protection has become
an issue of strategic importance within the manufacturing industry and many companies are now working in the field of Design
for Environment (DFE). The main purpose of DFE is to create products and services for achieving a sustainable society. Designers
are widely believed to have a key role in adapting products to a sustainable society and one of the major instruments in the
context of Design for Environment is Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). However, product development creates particular challenges
for incorporating environmental issues that combine functional and environmental assessment. A natural and important part
of product design is to define and analyse the functions of the product. Consequently, the functional unit in LCA is a core
issue in DFE. Most recent research in DFE has focused on how to reduce the environmental impact of products throughout their
life-cycle by addressing environmental aspects, while little attention has been given to the functionality of the product.
Additionally, early product development phases, so called re-think phases, are considered to have the influence on major changes
in products in general. These phases have thus the highest potential for changing products and product systems towards a sustainable
development.
Main Features This paper discusses an extended functional representation in design for environment methods to evaluate sustainable design
solutions, especially in early (re-think) phases of product design. Based on engineering-design science and several case studies,
a concept has been developed describing how functional preferences can be visualised in design for environment and product
development. In addition, the functional unit in LCA is discussed. The concept is called Functional Profile (FP) and is additionally
exemplified in a case study on radio equipment.
Discussion The new functional characterisation concept helps identify functional priorities in design for environment. The Functional
Profile is a structured, systematic and creative concept for identifying the necessary functions of a new product. The FP
is envisioned to complement existing design for environment methods, not to replace them. Instead of being a product-development
tool or method, the concept is an approach that increases understanding of inter-reactions between functional characteristics
of products and their environmental characteristics, which furthermore facilitates trade-off decisions. One of the objectives
behind the concept is to highlight the importance of balancing functional requirements and environmental impacts, presenting
both the advantages and disadvantages of the product.
Outlook A second paper will be produced to complement the functional-environmental characterisation concept in early product development
phase, presenting the environmental characterisation part and illustrating correlations between the functional and environmental
sides. 相似文献
2.
3.
Goal, Scope and Background China is one of the main producers of metallic zinc and its annual production has been becoming the largest in the world since
the year 2000. To improve the environmental situation of zinc production in China, a life cycle assessment was performed for
hydro and pyro-metallurgical processes, based on the case study of Zhuzhou Smelter and Shaoguan metallurgical plant, respectively.
Methods The system is modeled into several sub-modules so as to identify the source of environmental impacts.
Results and Discussion The main results of LCA study are summarized as follows: (1) Hydro-metallurgical process is superior to pyro-metallurgical
process in GWP and inferior to pyro-metallurgical process in GER and ACP. (2) Compared with the advanced foreign zinc metallurgical
process, the GWP, ACP and HME of the zinc metallurgical process in China are much higher. (3) In hydro-metallurgical processes,
residue treatment and auxiliary processes are the main contributors of ACP and GWP, which are the key sub-modules, and should
be improved. In pyro-metallurgical processes, the main sub-modules needing improvement are smelting, power and electricity
generation. (4) Electricity is the main energy consumption in the hydro-metallurgical processes, accounting for 60% of GER.
In pyro-metallurgical process, main energy sources are metallurgical coke and anthracite, both also accounting for 60% of
GER.
Conclusions According to the discovery of LCA study, three main measures to improve the environmental performance of zinc products were
proposed: 1) Regulating the structure of energy sources of Shaoguan Smelter, 2) removing SOb2 in low concentration from flue gas by absorption with zinc oxide, and 3) adjusting the material structure of Walze rotary
furnace. 相似文献
4.
Background In developing products various requirements have to be integrated including functionality, quality, affordability as well
as environmental aspects. Often conflicting requirements have to be fulfilled. Therefore, multi-dimensional decision support
approaches are necessary.
Methods Here, one approach is to relate the conflicting requirements to each other. Life Cycle Costing (LCC) has the potential to
support the trade-off between some environmental targets and overall affordability targets by including all monetary flows
along the product life cycle (going beyond the well-known costs of ownership by integrating also long-term use and end-of-life
costs). Those solutions can be identified that (a) have the highest efficiencies (where do we get most environmental improvements
per Ϊ and (b) have the highest affordability for the customer along the life cycle. Furthermore, on-costs in the design phase
can be justified in terms of future savings either for the customer or for the recycling of the products. These represent
real business cases for environmental actions. Three types of environmental business cases can be differentiated.
Results and Discussion This paper presents various examples where LCC is integrated into product design. However, there are a number of open issues
in the implementation of LCC within real product development including data availability and uncertainty (future costs/ savings),
level of discounting, accounting and compensation. Various internal case studies done in the last years showed that already
few changes in the costs structure can significantly affect the identi-fied future costs.
Recommendation and Outlook Uncertainties in LCC are higher than in LCA and highest when applied in the stage of product develop-ment, i.e. used to support
DfE action. As a consequence, the result-ing figures can only be seen as directional. Therefore, the use of LCC in Design
for Environment cannot be recommended without major restrictions in terms of guidance, experience/training. The link-age between
LCC and DfE can either be established via (1) experts supporting design teams or (2) as part of a DfE tool. The DfE tool has
to include detailed guidance for interpretation, and its application should be based on a solid training for DfE engineers. 相似文献
5.
Sustainability-a term originating from silviculture, which was adopted by UNEP as the main political goal for the future development
of humankind-is also the ultimate aim of product development. It comprises three components: environment, economy and social
aspects which have to be properly assessed and balanced if a new product is to be designed or an existing one is to be improved.
The responsibility of the researchers involved in the assessment is to provide appropriate and reliable instruments. For the
environmental part there is already an internationally standardized tool: Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Life Cycle Costing
(LCC) is the logical counterpart of LCA for the economic assessment. LCC surpasses the purely economic cost calculation by
taking into account hidden costs and potentially external costs over the life cycle of the product. It is a very important
point that different life-cycle based methods (including Social Life Cycle Assessment) for sustainablity assessment use the
same system boundaries. 相似文献
6.
LCA case study for lead and zinc production by an imperial smelting process in china a brief presentation 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
Guo Xueyi Xiao Songwen Xiao Xiao Li Qihou Yamamoto Ryoichi 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2002,7(5):276-276
An LCA case study was conducted for the production of lead and zinc by an Imperial Smelting Process (abbreviated hereafter
as ISP) in Shaoguan Smelter, China. The detailed inventory analysis was performed by allocating the Input/Output among the
main products.The environmental impacts were assessed by using the following five Eco-indicators: Gross Energy Requirement
(GER), Global Warming Potential (GWP), Acidification Potential (AP), Heavy Metal Toxicity (HMT) and Solid Waste Burden (SWB).
This study is useful to address the environmental situation of the ISP practiced in this smelter, and provides a scientific
basis for further improvement. 相似文献
7.
8.
东北有机及常规大豆对环境影响的生命周期评价 总被引:4,自引:0,他引:4
选择我国主要有机出口农产品之一——大豆作为研究对象,采用生命周期评价、DNDC模型、实地调研等方法建立大豆生命周期资源消耗和环境排放清单,分析比较了出口型有机大豆、国内消费型有机大豆以及国内消费型常规大豆的生命周期环境影响.结果表明:3种不同生产消费型大豆生命周期中资源消耗、酸化以及全球变暖对综合环境影响贡献最明显,基本上占到综合环境影响评价的30%左右,而富营养化和生态毒性的贡献率较低,小于10%.从生命周期的不同阶段分析,3种消费模式的大豆其运输阶段对于各分类环境影响的贡献率最大,都在50%以上,对资源消耗的贡献率更是在80%以上.从2种不同的生产模式看无论是全球变暖、酸化、资源消耗还是生态毒性都是有机大豆的环境影响综合指数小于常规大豆,对环境产生的负面影响较小.综合比较3种不同生产消费型大豆,国内消费的有机大豆生命周期综合环境影响最小,其环境影响综合指数比常规大豆的减少31%.但是出口有机大豆由于出口使运输距离延长,其生命周期综合环境影响最大.因此,环境管理关键是提倡有机产品本地消费以缩短运输距离,或者采用环保型能源以减少环境排放. 相似文献
9.
James A. Fava 《人类与生态风险评估》1998,4(4):1003-1017
The purpose of this paper is to describe how one pollution prevention tool, life-cycle assessment, can be used to identify and manage environmental issues associated with product systems. Specifically, this paper will describe what life-cycle assessment is, determine the key players in its development and application, and present ideas on how life-cycle assessment can be used today. LCA provides a systematic means to broaden the perspective of a company's decisionmaking process to incorporate the consideration of energy and material use, transportation, post-customer use, and disposal, and the environmental releases associated with the product system. LCA provides a framework to achieve a better understanding of the trade-offs associated with specific change in a product, package, or process. This understanding lays the foundation for subsequent risk assessments and risk management efforts by decision-makers. 相似文献
10.
Fernanda Andreola Luisa Barbieri Anna Corradi Anna Maria Ferrari Isabella Lancellotti Paolo Neri 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2007,12(6):448-454
Background, Aims and Scope The interest in recycling materials at the end of their life is growing in the industry in general. As regards the Wastes
of Electrical and Electronic Equipment (WEEE), an appreciable increase of these materials has been noticed in the last decades,
117 · 103 tons of WEEE have been produced in Italy in 2002 according to Ecohitech [1] and the increase in this kind of waste is three
times higher than that of the municipal waste according to the FISE ASSOAMBIENTE report [2]. Within WEEE, End-of-Life Cathode
Ray Tube (EOL CRT) glass, the main part of TV sets and PC monitors, is here analysed using both a technical approach to establish
a possible reuse of the glass in a open-loop recycling field (ceramic industry) and a methodology (LCA) capable of providing
environmental evaluations.
Methods The technological characterization was performed by chemical resistance tests (UNI EN ISO 10545-13), staining tests (UNI EN
ISO 10545-14) with blue methylene and potassium permanganate (KMnO4), and surface abrasion tests (UNI EN ISO 10545-7). The LCA study was conducted using the SimaPro 5.0 software and Eco-Indicator
99 as an evaluation method.
Results and Discussion The good technical results, reached by using cleaned EOL CRT panel glass inside a ceramic glaze formulation instead of a commercial
frit, are supported by the environmental impact evaluation, which shows a decrease of the overall potential damage (measured
in Points) of 36% and, in particular, a reduction of 53% in ‘Human health’, 31% in ‘Eco-system quality’ and 24% in ‘Resources’.
Conclusions This study has demonstrated that this new, open-loop recycling strategy for the CRT glass significantly reduces the environmental
impact of the ceramic glaze production process. In fact, in all damage categories examined in this study, there is a minor
impact. An improvement is evident in the respiratory inorganics sub-category related to the lowering of dusts mainly and to
a lesser amount with NOx and SOx in the climate change sub-category, due mainly to the reduction of CO2 emission correlated to the avoided combustion of the mixture which feeds melting furnaces in the frit production. Thus, the
damage decrease in ‘Ecosystem quality’ is prevalently due to the lower NOx emissions by the kilns in the frit production that is evident in the acidification/eutrophication sub-category. Finally,
the significant saving in the ‘Resource’ category is principally linked to the fossil fuels sub-category, thanks to the methane
saving which stokes the melting furnaces.
Perspectives Furthermore, the decrease in CO2 emission (94.4%) evident in the climate change sub-category is a very important topic because it is in line with the Kyoto
protocol (1997), where significant efforts have been exerted for the reduction of the green house gases emission, notably
CO2. The CO2 emission is correlated to the combustion of the mixture which feeds melting kilns in the frit production, therefore the recycling
of secondary raw materials, already in a glass state, can reduce the emissions of this gas. This reduction can be termed as
environmental credit and it is an example of an allocation of environmental loads in a open-loop recycling, where waste from
one industrial system are used as raw materials in another product system. 相似文献
11.
Sandra Bellekom José Potting René Benders 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2006,11(6):417-424
Goal, Scope and Background Taking into account the location of emissions and its subsequent, site-dependent impacts improves the accuracy of LCIA. Opponents
of site-dependent impact assessment argue that it is too time-consuming to collect the required additional inventory data.
In this paper we quantify this time and look into the added value of site-dependent LCIA results.
Methods We recalculated the acidifying impact for three existing LCA studies: linoleum, stone wool, and water piping systems. The
amount of time needed to collect the required additional data is reported. The EDIP2003 methodology provides site-generic
and site-dependent acidification factors. We used these factors to recalculate acidification for the case studies. We analyzed
differences between site-generic and site-dependent acidification and reported problems experienced.
Results and Discussion Finding the location of processes and emissions was easy. The reports of the three case studies contained most of this information.
Far more time was needed to disaggregate processes to the level where emissions can be localized. Although the overall conclusions
with regard to acidification did not change in the case studies, the relative importance of processes shifted when considering
sub-levels. This is especially important for improvement analysis.
Site-dependent acidification assessment was hampered in the linoleum case study where about 40% of the acidification originates
from non-European emissions. However, EDIP2003 provides no site-dependent factors for these countries and site-generic factors
had to be used instead. Thus, calculating site-dependent acidification is only feasible for LCA studies in which the majority
of the emissions originate in Europe.
We could not reproduce all parts of the three case studies using the report and additional public resources. This hindered
our recalculation. In fact, any additional analysis will be hampered by this lack of reproducibility. ISO recommends such
reproducibility for comparative assertion disclosed to the public.
Conclusion Spatially differentiated acidification is feasible for each of the three case studies. Finding the location of processes
and emissions was easy, but quite some time was needed to disaggregate processes and emissions to the appropriate level. Overall
conclusions on acidification remained the same for the case studies, but the relative contribution of basic processes changed
when applying site-dependent impact assessment. Though the three case studies were all rather detailed and complete, none
of them was fully reproducible. This complicated recalculation of acidification, and will in fact make any additional analysis
difficult. 相似文献
12.
Karli L. James Tim Grant Kees Sonneveld 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2002,7(3):151-157
Intention, Goal, Scope, Background To discuss the process of stakeholder involvement as undertaken in a post-consumer paper and packaging waste management LCA
study conducted during 1997-2001 for the Melbourne Metropolitan Area, Victoria, Australia. Secondly, to present the findings
from a survey conducted with the stakeholder groups regarding their perception of involvement in the project.
Objectives To investigate the stakeholder’s perception; and value of being involved in the LCA study intended to generate quantitative
environmental information to support debate, development and implementation of waste management practices.
Methods Stakeholders that were involved in the study, both actively and passively, were surveyed by questionnaire Survey findings
were analysed in conjunction with stakeholder interaction experiences obtained in the course of the study. as]Results and
Discussion
Respondents to the survey believed there was a sufficient level of interaction between stakeholders and researchers during
the course of the project. The advisory committee approach helped to timely recognize issues and deal with them appropriately.
It furdier assisted in the collection of life cycle inventory data and in obtaining ownership of outcomes by the research
ream appropriately responding to the needs and issues raised by stakeholders.
Recommendations and Outlook General recommendations for the inclusion of stakeholders in future studies are to use stakeholder interactions, wherever
it is possible and practical, which in turn play an educational role, engage stakeholders from the start of the process and
allow additional time in the project plan for review stages, as well as ensuring that all relevant groups are represented
— industry, industry associations, government and non-governmental organizations, and also provide sufficient material and
progress for discussion at meetings. 相似文献
13.
LCA in Japan: policy and progress 总被引:1,自引:0,他引:1
David Hunkeler Itaru Yasui Ryoichi Yamamoto 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》1998,3(3):124-130
A summary of the current Japanese activities related to Life Cycle Assessment are presented with a specific comparison of Life Cycle Impact Assessment in relation to European tendencies. Japanese organizations involved in LCA, recent legislation impacting LCA activities and LCA case studies are also tabulated. The LCA priorities of policy makers and industrialists are discussed in comparison and compared to those in the United States. Projects within the Life Cycle Assessment Society of Japan and the Man-Earth Project are highlighted including the construction of a public LCI data base and the prediction of 21st century environmental crises. 相似文献
14.
Petra Sieber Niclas Ericsson Torun Hammar Per‐Anders Hansson 《Global Change Biology Bioenergy》2020,12(6):410-425
Albedo change during feedstock production can substantially alter the life cycle climate impact of bioenergy. Life cycle assessment (LCA) studies have compared the effects of albedo and greenhouse gases (GHGs) based on global warming potential (GWP). However, using GWP leads to unequal weighting of climate forcers that act on different timescales. In this study, albedo was included in the time‐dependent LCA, which accounts for the timing of emissions and their impacts. We employed field‐measured albedo and life cycle emissions data along with time‐dependent models of radiative transfer, biogenic carbon fluxes and nitrous oxide emissions from soil. Climate impacts were expressed as global mean surface temperature change over time (?T) and as GWP. The bioenergy system analysed was heat and power production from short‐rotation willow grown on former fallow land in Sweden. We found a net cooling effect in terms of ?T per hectare (?3.8 × 10–11 K in year 100) and GWP100 per MJ fuel (?12.2 g CO2e), as a result of soil carbon sequestration via high inputs of carbon from willow roots and litter. Albedo was higher under willow than fallow, contributing to the cooling effect and accounting for 34% of GWP100, 36% of ?T in year 50 and 6% of ?T in year 100. Albedo dominated the short‐term temperature response (10–20 years) but became, in relative terms, less important over time, owing to accumulation of soil carbon under sustained production and the longer perturbation lifetime of GHGs. The timing of impacts was explicit with ?T, which improves the relevance of LCA results to climate targets. Our method can be used to quantify the first‐order radiative effect of albedo change on the global climate and relate it to the climate impact of GHG emissions in LCA of bioenergy, alternative energy sources or land uses. 相似文献
15.
Gregory A. Norris 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2001,6(2):118-120
The private sector decision making situations which LCA addresses mustalso eventually take theeconomic consequences of alternative products or product designs into account. However, neither the internal nor external economic
aspects of the decisions are within the scope of developed LCA methodology, nor are they properly addressed by existing LCA
tools. This traditional separation of life cycle environmental assessment from economic analysis has limited the influence
and relevance of LCA for decision-making, and left uncharacterized the important relationships and trade-offs between the
economic and life cycle environmental performance of alternative product design decision scenarios. Still standard methods
of LCA can and have been tightly, logically, and practically integrated with standard methods for cost accounting, life cycle
cost analysis, and scenario-based economic risk modeling. The result is an ability to take both economic and environmental
performance — and their tradeoff relationships — into account in product/process design decision making. 相似文献
16.
Weichen Xu Rod Brian Jimenez Rachel Mowery Haibin Luo Mingyan Cao Nitin Agarwal 《MABS-AUSTIN》2017,9(7):1186-1196
During manufacturing and storage process, therapeutic proteins are subject to various post-translational modifications (PTMs), such as isomerization, deamidation, oxidation, disulfide bond modifications and glycosylation. Certain PTMs may affect bioactivity, stability or pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics profile and are therefore classified as potential critical quality attributes (pCQAs). Identifying, monitoring and controlling these PTMs are usually key elements of the Quality by Design (QbD) approach. Traditionally, multiple analytical methods are utilized for these purposes, which is time consuming and costly. In recent years, multi-attribute monitoring methods have been developed in the biopharmaceutical industry. However, these methods combine high-end mass spectrometry with complicated data analysis software, which could pose difficulty when implementing in a quality control (QC) environment. Here we report a multi-attribute method (MAM) using a Quadrupole Dalton (QDa) mass detector to selectively monitor and quantitate PTMs in a therapeutic monoclonal antibody. The result output from the QDa-based MAM is straightforward and automatic. Evaluation results indicate this method provides comparable results to the traditional assays. To ensure future application in the QC environment, this method was qualified according to the International Conference on Harmonization (ICH) guideline and applied in the characterization of drug substance and stability samples. The QDa-based MAM is shown to be an extremely useful tool for product and process characterization studies that facilitates facile understanding of process impact on multiple quality attributes, while being QC friendly and cost-effective. 相似文献
17.
Goal, Scope, and Background The main goal of the study is a comprehensive life cycle assessment of kerosene produced in a refinery located in Thessaloniki
(Greece) and used in a commercial jet aircraft.
Methods The Eco-Indicator 95 weighting method is used for the purpose of this study. The Eco-Indicator is a method of aggregation
(or, as described in ISO draft 14042, 'weighting through categories') that leads to a single score. In the Eco-indicator method,
the weighing factor (We) applied to an environmental impact index (greenhouse effect, ozone depletion, etc.) stems from the
'main' damage caused by this environmental impact.
Results and Discussion The dominant source of greenhouse gas emissions is from kerosene combustion in aircraft turbines during air transportation,
which contributes 99.5% of the total CO2 emissions. The extraction and refinery process of crude oil contribute by around
0.22% to the GWP. This is a logical outcome considering that these processes are very energy intensive. Transportation of
crude oil and kerosene have little or no contribution to this impact category. The main source of CFC-11 equivalent emissions
is refining of crude oil. These emissions derive from emissions that result from electricity production that is used during
the operation of the refinery. NOx emissions contribute the most to the acidification followed by SO2 emissions. The main
source is the use process in a commercial jet aircraft, which contributes approximately 96.04% to the total equivalent emissions.
The refinery process of crude oil contributes by 2.11% mainly by producing SO2 emissions. This is due to the relative high
content of sulphur in the input flows of these processes (crude oil) that results to the production of large amount of SO2.
Transportation of crude oil by sea (0.76%) produces large amount of SO2 and NOx due to combustion of low quality liquid fuels
(heavy fuel oil). High air emissions of NOx during kerosene combustion result in the high contribution of this subsystem to
the eutrophication effect. Also, water emissions with high nitrous content during the refining and extraction of crude oil
process have a big impact to the water eutrophication impact category.
Conclusion The major environmental impact from the life cycle of kerosene is the acidification effect, followed by the greenhouse effect.
The summer smog and eutrophication effect have much less severe effect. The main contributor is the combustion of kerosene
to a commercial jet aircraft. Excluding the use phase, the refining process appears to be the most polluting process during
kerosene's life cycle. This is due to the fact that the refining process is a very complicated energy intensive process that
produces large amounts and variety of pollutant substances. Extraction and transportation of crude oil and kerosene equally
contribute to the environmental impacts of the kerosene cycle, but at much lower level than the refining process.
Recommendation and Perspective The study indicates a need for a more detailed analysis of the refining process which has a very high contribution to the
total equivalent emissions of the acidification effect and to the total impact score of the system (excluding the combustion
of kerosene). This is due to the relative high content of sulphur in the input flows of these processes (crude oil) that results
to the production of large amount of SO2. 相似文献
18.
Geoffrey M. Rynja David C. Moy 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2002,7(6):359-362
Background, Intention, Goal and Scope The analytical laboratory is traditionally considered to be a service provider. This has resulted in laboratory environmental
management being considered mostly from a pollution prevention and waste minimization perspective. There is a recognized need
to view environmental performance of a laboratory service provider from a broader perspective. This broader perspective is
inclusive of sampling, analysis and the potential for impacts to arise from the use of output information products. A generic
methodology for the measurement and benchmarking of the overall environmental performance of an analytical laboratory and
its outputs using the Laboratory Product Model (LPM) is described. Environmental performance indicators, relating to inputs
and processing are proposed.
Objectives The project seeks to broaden the focus of environmental performance away from the individual analytical unit processes to
a more encompassing ‘cradle-to-grave’ approach incorporating sample collection and results reporting and use. To support this
approach, a functional unit of output for a laboratory has to be defined.
Methods A life cycle assessment approach, incorporating life cycle inventory considerations, is applied within the LPM conceptual
framework.
Results and Discussion This approach facilitates a shift in thinking from laboratory service to the life cycle of laboratory product inputs and outputs.
It enables LCA methodologies to be applied to environmental performance through the application of the LPM. The definition
of a laboratory product output facilitates benchmarking and comparison of laboratories.
Conclusions The LPM approach assigns a critical role to the laboratory for the sustainability of the laboratory operations from sample
collection, through analysis to the use of its product outputs.
Recommendations and Outlook The application of the LPM offers a top down approach for the evaluation of the environmental performance of an analytical
laboratory. It is expected to provide a useful tool for assessing and benchmarking the environmental performance of analytical
laboratories. 相似文献
19.
Background Aims, and Scope. As products are, directly and indirectly, main sources for ecological impact, the overall enhancement of
products' ecological behaviour is an important contribution to the protection of the Earth's biosphere. This is especially
important in a world where the major economical system is based on a constant rise in industrial production, consumption,
and disposal of products. The true ecological performance of a product can only be determined by consideration of the impact
arising from the entire lifecycle, and by including all known impacts into the assessments. The state of technology provides
a standardized framework for such life cycle assessments (LCA) in the ISO 14040 series (see ISO 1997), and numerous databases
and software tools are available to support the conduction of LCA. To integrate ecological indicators into decisions of everyday
product development, as natural as it is the case today with finite items, design, and costs, indicators based on a consideration
of the product's entire life have to be generated with little effort and in short time.
Methods This article describes the fundamental principles of a technology designed to integrate lifecycle information into common
3-dimensional product models, like the ones used within modern Computer Aided Design (CAD) systems. Thereby, ecological assessments
can be effectively undertaken during product development, where most of the environmental lock-in of a product is defined
(see Lewis et al. 2001). Overall effects of alterations in materials or other product properties can be assessed instantly,
supporting on the spot decisions to reach an improved product design.
Results Next to an information model that manages the product and process representation, the research on which this article is based
also deals with the calculation of resulting indicators, database access to ecological indicators, a graphical user interface,
and a synchronisation tool for the CAD system Pro/Engineer . The developed concepts have been implemented as a prototype software
and validated in different stages.
Conclusions The concepts described in this article are a foundation for tools that integrate ecological assessments into everyday product
development, on the basis of 3-dimensional CAD systems. Reuse of existing CAD data, an improved understanding of the assessment
structure by product developers, and an automated calculation of resulting indicators are approaches to largely enhance the
efficiency of product-related ecological assessments. 相似文献
20.
Wulf-Peter Schmidt 《The International Journal of Life Cycle Assessment》2006,11(5):315-322
Background, Aim and Scope
Sustainability is a well recognised goal which is difficult to manage due to its complexity. As part of a series of sustainability
management tools, a Product Sustainability Index (PSI) is translating the sustainability aspects to the organization of vehicle
product development of Ford of Europe, thus allocating ownership and responsibility to that function. PSI is limiting the
scope to those key environmental, social and economic characteristics of passenger vehicles that are controllable by the product
development organisation.
Materials and Methods:
The PSI considers environmental, economic and social aspects based on externally reviewed life cycle environmental and cost
aspects (Life Cycle Assessment, Cost of ownership / Life Cycle Costing), externally certified aspects (allergy-tested interior)
and related aspects as sustainable materials, safety, mobility capability and noise. After the kick-off of their product development
in 2002, the new Ford S-MAX and Ford Galaxy are serving as a pilot for this tool. These products are launched in Europe in
2006. The tracking of PSI performance has been done by engineers of the Vehicle Integration department within the product
development organization. The method has been translated in an easy spreadsheet tool. Engineers have been trained within one
hour trainings. The application of PSI by vehicle integration followed the principle to reduce the need for any incremental
time or additional data to a minimum. PSI is adopted to the existing decision-making process. End of 2005, an internal expert
conducted a Life Cycle Assessment and Life Cycle Costing (LCC) study for verification purposes using commercial software.
This study and the PSI have been scrutinized by an external review panel according to ISO14040 and, by taking into consideration
the on-going SETAC, work in the field of LCC.
Results:
The results of the Life Cycle based indicators of PSI as calculated by non-experts are fully in line with those of the more
detailed expert study. The difference is below 2%. The new Ford Galaxy and Ford S-MAX shows significantly improved performance
regarding the life cycle air quality, use of sustainable materials, restricted substances and safety compared to the previous
model Galaxy. The affordability (Life Cycle Cost of Ownership) has also been improved when looking at the same engine types.
Looking at gasoline versus diesel options, the detailed study shows under what conditions the diesel options are environmentally
preferable and less costly (mileage, fuel prices, etc.).
Discussion:
The robustness of results has been verified in various ways. Based also on Sensitivity and Monte-Carlo Analysis, case study-specific
requirements have been deduced defining criteria for a significant environmental improvement between the various vehicles.
Only if the differences of LCIA results between two vehicles are larger than a certain threshold are the above-mentioned results
robust.
Conclusions:
In general terms, an approach has been implemented and externally reviewed that allows non-experts to manage key environmental,
social and economic aspects in the product development, also on a vehicle level. This allows mainstream functions to take
ownership of sustainability and assigns accountability to those who can really decide on changes affecting the sustainability
performance. In the case of Ford S-MAX and Galaxy, indicators from all three dimensions of sustainability (environment, social
and economic) have been improved compared to the old Ford Galaxy.
Recommendations and Perspectives:
Based on this positive experience, it is recommended to make, in large or multinational organizations, the core business functions
directly responsible and accountable for managing their own part of environmental, social and economic aspects of sustainability.
Staff functions should be limited to starting the process with methodological and training support and making sure that the
contributions of the different main functions fit together. 相似文献