低氧对骨骼肌成肌细胞增殖分化的影响及相关机制研究进展

骨骼肌中成肌细胞作为肌源性祖细胞具有自我更新和生成新的肌纤维的能力,而氧气水平对调节成肌细胞的肌生成能力至关重要。这篇综述中描述了低氧状态下细胞的分子调控,氧水平对成肌细胞在肌生成中的影响和骨骼肌成肌细胞增殖和分化的转录调节。本文还概述了多种信号通路在分子调控中的机制,其中Notch,Wnt信号通路是依赖于低氧诱导因子HIF-1α介导的机制;PI3K-Akt-mTOR、p38 MAPK、p53信号传导则是独立于HIF-1α在低氧下调节成肌分化的途径。因此,深入研究和进一步揭示机制中涉及的信号通路为治疗低氧对骨骼肌损伤性的疾病提供证据和参考。     

白血病抑制因子在骨骼肌损伤与肥大中的作用及其机制

白血病抑制因子(LIF)是一种肌肉因子(myokines),在损伤骨骼肌和运动后骨骼肌中高丰度表达,它可能通过JAK2和STAT3信号通路调节肌卫星细胞和成肌细胞增殖,通过PI3K信号通路抑制成肌细胞凋亡,也可以通过LIF受体信号通路调节骨骼肌局部炎症反应,同时与多种细胞因子相互作用抑制成肌细胞过早分化,从而在骨骼肌损伤修复和骨骼肌肥大中发挥重要作用。外源性补充重组LIF可促进骨骼肌损伤修复和促进骨骼肌肥大,这具有非常重要的临床应用价值。LIF可能成为治疗急性肌肉损伤和促进骨骼肌肥大的一种新手段,有关LIF在骨骼肌方面的研究也将会成为一个新的研究热点。     

Myomaker和Myomerger调控成肌细胞融合的分子机制

骨骼肌形成是一个复杂的生理过程,主要涉及肌源性干细胞增殖形成成肌细胞,进而分化、融合形成多核肌管。研究发现,有多种蛋白参与成肌细胞融合过程,但它们均不具有肌肉特异性。近年来,两种肌肉特异性膜蛋白Myomaker和Myomerger先后被发现和鉴定,它们能协调促进成肌细胞融合,从而参与骨骼肌形成过程。本文对成肌过程中Myomaker和Myomerger的表达模式、功能域等研究现状及其参与成肌细胞的融合机制进行了综述,旨在为深入研究骨骼肌形成过程及治疗肌细胞融合相关疾病提供参考信息。     

微小RNA调控骨骼肌增殖、分化的研究进展

骨骼肌损伤、萎缩等疾病的防治一直是困扰临床医生的难题。这些骨骼肌疾病的康复离不开肌细胞增殖、分化的调节。微小RNA（microRNA）作为基因表达的调节因子,通过对骨骼肌细胞增殖、分化机制的开启、促进和抑制等方式,对骨骼肌发育过程中的初始肌细胞、成肌细胞以及生物体成熟以后的肌卫星细胞的增殖、分化均进行着精细调节。因此,研究microRNA调节骨骼肌增殖、分化的机制已成为科研工作者的当务之急,并具有广阔的应用前景。     

干扰素诱导蛋白p204调节心肌分化的机制及应用前景

干扰素诱导蛋白p200家族蛋白包括6种鼠类及4种人类家族成员,具有共同的特征结构,广泛参与调节细胞增殖和分化、衰老和凋亡,在自身免疫反应、抗病毒及抗癌等领域发挥着重要的作用。内源性的p200家族蛋白鼠p204在心肌及骨骼肌表达最高,提示其在肌分化中起着重要作用。本文联系p204的分子结构及调节细胞生长与分化的功能,阐述p204促骨骼肌成肌细胞及胚胎癌细胞分化的机制,及对心肌损伤后心肌再生的应用前景。     

成肌细胞增殖/分化的信号转导研究

间充质干细胞可分化为成肌细胞[1] ,成肌细胞在ＭｙｏＤ、Ｍｙｆ5等基因调控下分化为肌细胞。参与骨骼肌损伤修复的卫星细胞即是成肌细胞 ,成肌细胞增殖 /分化的正确调控对创伤修复有重要意义 ,多种信号转导通路在此过程中发挥作用 ,不同的生长因子通过不同的信号转导通路抑制或诱导成肌细胞的定向分化。1 .Ｃａ2 +通道成肌细胞分化为功能性纤维是被分散的、不连续的胞内信号转导途径诱导调节。Ｃａ2 +是细胞信号的第二信使 ,其内流是成肌细胞胞膜融合后分化为肌细胞的前提 ,Ｓｈｉｎ等[2 ] 发现Ｋ+(Ｃａ2 +)通道在成肌细胞中对Ｃａ2 +的敏…     

干扰Sema7A抑制C2C12成肌细胞的增殖和分化

为研究脑信号蛋白家族（Semaphorins）成员Sema7A对成肌细胞增殖和分化的影响,本文设计并合成了Sema7A基因的小干扰RNA（small interfering RNA,siRNA）,用此siRNA转染C2C12成肌细胞．通过Hoechst核染和流式细胞术检测细胞增殖情况,免疫荧光检测肌管的形成情况,real-time qPCR和Western印迹技术检测成肌标记基因的变化.结果显示,干扰Sema7A后,C2C12成肌细胞增殖减慢,处在G2和S期的细胞所占的比例明显下降,而G1期细胞的比例升高．免疫荧光检测结果显示,干扰Sema7A后,肌管的直径及MyHC+细胞所占比例均显著降低．Real-time qPCR和Western印迹结果也显示,肌肉分化标志基因MyoD、MyoG、MyHC的mRNA及蛋白质表达均下降．进一步检测Sema7A受体下游信号通路发现,干扰Sema7A后,其下游信号分子PI3K和AKT的磷酸化水平被下调．以上结果表明,Sema7A可以调节C2C12成肌细胞的增殖和分化,可能是通过其受体作用于PI3K/AKT信号通路实现的,这为进一步研究Sema7A在骨骼肌发育中的作用提供实验基础.     

高表达FoxO1抑制猪骨骼肌成肌细胞的分化

FoxO1(Forkhead box O1)是调控肌肉生长、代谢和细胞分化的重要转录因子,但其在成肌细胞分化中的作用还不甚清楚。为了研究FoxO1对哺乳动物成肌细胞分化的影响,以原代培养的长白仔猪成肌细胞作为实验材料,用2%马血清诱导分化,采用实时荧光定量PCR、Western blotting和脂质体转染等方法检测FoxO1及早期和晚期生肌调节因子MyoD和myogenin在猪成肌细胞分化过程中的表达变化。结果显示,在猪成肌细胞分化过程中,FoxO1mRNA表达量显著增加,但总蛋白量变化不显著,其磷酸化水平显著上调。同时,高表达FoxO1的猪成肌细胞中,生肌调节因子MyoD和myogenin mRNA表达受到显著抑制,而MyoD蛋白变化不显著,myogenin却显著下调(P0.05)。以上结果表明,FoxO1能够推迟猪成肌细胞的分化时间并抑制分化;同时推测,FoxO1可能通过抑制生肌调节因子的表达控制骨骼肌纤维类型的终末分化。     

TNF-α通过ERK和MAPK信号途径抑制猪骨骼肌成肌细胞分化

研究肿瘤坏死因子α(TNFα-)对猪骨骼肌成肌细胞分化的影响,并探讨其可能的作用机制。原代培养猪骨骼肌成肌细胞,通过倒置显微镜定性观察细胞分化的形态学变化;生肌指数和肌酸激酶(CK)活性定量分析成肌细胞分化程度;细胞免疫化学法分析肌球蛋白重链(MyHC)的蛋白表达情况;采用特异性抑制剂探讨TNFα-可能的作用信号途径。结果显示:在猪骨骼肌成肌细胞分化过程中,外源性TNFα-减少细胞核融合和肌管形成;浓度依赖性地显著降低生肌指数和CK活性(P<0.05);并显著抑制MyHC蛋白表达(P<0.05);TNFα- SB205380或TNFα- PD98059处理组与TNFα-处理组相比,其CK活性和myogenin蛋白表达显著回升(P<0.05)。结果表明:TNFα-抑制猪骨骼肌成肌细胞分化,并且这种作用可能是通过激活细胞外信号调节激酶(ERK)和促分裂原活化蛋白激酶(MAPK)信号转导通路实现的。研究结果暗示TNFα-在猪骨骼肌成肌细胞分化过程中可能具有重要作用。     

丝裂素活化蛋白激酶参与骨骼肌细胞分化的调节

丝裂素活化蛋白激酶参与骨骼肌细胞分化的调节丝裂素活化蛋白激酶（ＭＡＰＫｓ）途径被认为是细胞外信号引起细胞增殖、分化等核反应的共同通路。最近,美国冷泉港实验室Ｂｅｎｎｅｔ等人用培养的Ｃ２Ｃ１２成肌细胞株研究ＭＡＰＫｓ在肌细胞分化不同阶段中的作用。作者发...     

Fusion and differentiation of murine C2C12 skeletal muscle cells that express Trichinella spiralis p43 protein

The ability of a 43 kDa stichocyte protein from Trichinella spiralis (Tsp43) to interfere with mammalian skeletal muscle gene expression was investigated. A MYC-tagged Tsp43 construct was expressed as a recombinant protein in C2C12 myoblasts. Transfection with low amounts of expression plasmid was required for successful expression of the protein. This construct had apparent toxic effects on transfected myoblasts and ectopic green fluorescent protein expression was suppressed in myoblasts co-transfected with the Tsp43 construct. These effects may result from similarities of Tsp43 to DNase II. Use of the general DNase inhibitor aurintricarboxylic acid (ATA) enhanced expression of MYC-Tsp43 in transfected muscle cells. Myoblasts transfected with Tsp43 did not fuse well when cultured under differentiation conditions without ATA. In contrast, transfected myoblasts transiently cultured with ATA underwent fusion and differentiation. Under short-term differentiation conditions without ATA, unfused myoblasts nevertheless expressed both MYC-Tsp43 and myosin heavy chain. Collectively, the results support that Tsp43 has a role in the T. spiralis life cycle that is distinct from repressing muscle gene expression during the muscle phase of infection. While the function of Tsp43 as a DNase is under debate, the effects of ATA on transfected muscle cells were consistent with this possibility.     

Rac1 inhibits myogenic differentiation by preventing the complete withdrawal of myoblasts from the cell cycle

The small GTPase protein Rac1 is involved in a wide range of biological processes, yet its role in cell differentiation is mostly unknown. Here we show that Rac1 activity is high in proliferating myoblasts and decreases during the differentiation process. To analyze the involvement of Rac1 in muscle differentiation, different forms of the protein were expressed in muscle cells. A constitutively activated form of Rac1 (Rac1Q61L) inhibited the activity of MyoD in promoting muscle differentiation, whereas a dominant negative form of Rac1 (Rac1T17N) induced the activity of MyoD in promoting muscle differentiation. Expression of Rac1T17N imposed myogenic differentiation on myoblasts growing under mitogenic conditions. In inquiring whether Rac1 affected the withdrawal of myoblasts from the cell cycle, we analyzed the expression of cyclin D1 and p21(WAF1) and the phosphorylation state of the retinoblastoma protein. According to these markers and bromodeoxyuridine incorporation, C2 myoblasts expressing Rac1T17N exited the cell cycle earlier than control C2 cells. Myoblasts expressing Rac1Q61L did not permanently withdraw from the cell cycle. An indication of the possible involvement of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway in Rac1-mediated myoblast proliferation was obtained by the use of MAPK kinase inhibitors U0126 and PD098059. These inhibitors arrested C2-Rac1Q61L cell cycling. Taken together, our results show that Rac1 activation interferes with myoblast exit from the cell cycle via or in concert with the MAPK pathway.     

Integrin alpha subunit ratios, cytoplasmic domains, and growth factor synergy regulate muscle proliferation and differentiation

The role of integrins in muscle differentiation was addressed by ectopic expression of integrin alpha subunits in primary quail skeletal muscle, a culture system particularly amenable to efficient transfection and expression of exogenous genes. Ectopic expression of either the human alpha5 subunit or the chicken alpha6 subunit produced contrasting phenotypes. The alpha5-transfected myoblasts remain in the proliferative phase and are differentiation inhibited even in confluent cultures. In contrast, myoblasts that overexpress the alpha6 subunit exhibit inhibited proliferation and substantial differentiation. Antisense suppression of endogenous quail alpha6 expression inhibits myoblast differentiation resulting in sustained proliferation. These effects of ectopic alpha subunit expression are mediated, to a large extent, by the cytoplasmic domains. Ectopic expression of chimeric alpha subunits, alpha5ex/6cyto and alpha6ex/5cyto, produced phenotypes opposite to those observed with ectopic alpha5 or alpha6 expression. Myoblasts that express alpha5ex/6cyto show decreased proliferation while differentiation is partially restored. In contrast, the alpha6ex/5cyto transfectants remain in the proliferative phase unless allowed to become confluent for at least 24 h. Furthermore, expression of human alpha5 subunit cytoplasmic domain truncations, before and after the conserved GFFKR motif, shows that this sequence is important in alpha5 regulation of differentiation. Ectopic alpha5 and alpha6 expression also results in contrasting responses to the mitogenic effects of serum growth factors. Myoblasts expressing the human alpha5 subunit differentiate only in the absence of serum while differentiation of untransfected and alpha6-transfected myoblasts is insensitive to serum concentration. Addition of individual, exogenous growth factors to alpha5-transfected myoblasts results in unique responses that differ from their effects on untransfected cells. Both bFGF or TGFbeta inhibit the serum-free differentiation of alpha5- transfected myoblasts, but differ in that bFGF stimulates proliferation whereas TGF-beta inhibits it. Insulin or TGF-alpha promote proliferation and differentiation of alpha5-transfected myoblasts; however, insulin alters myotube morphology. TGF-alpha or PDGF-BB enhance muscle alpha-actinin organization into myofibrils, which is impaired in differentiated alpha5 cultures. With the exception of TGF- alpha, these growth factor effects are not apparent in untransfected myoblasts. Finally, myoblast survival under serum-free conditions is enhanced by ectopic alpha5 expression only in the presence of bFGF and insulin while TGF-alpha and TGF-beta promote survival of untransfected myoblasts. Our observations demonstrate (1) a specificity for integrin alpha subunits in regulating myoblast proliferation and differentiation; (2) that the ratio of integrin expression can affect the decision to proliferate or differentiate; (3) a role for the alpha subunit cytoplasmic domain in mediating proliferative and differentiative signals; and (4) the regulation of proliferation, differentiation, cytoskeletal assembly, and cell survival depend critically on the expression levels of different integrins and the growth factor environment in which the cells reside.     

The Tocotrienol-Rich Fraction Is Superior to Tocopherol in Promoting Myogenic Differentiation in the Prevention of Replicative Senescence of Myoblasts

Aging results in a loss of muscle mass and strength. Myoblasts play an important role in maintaining muscle mass through regenerative processes, which are impaired during aging. Vitamin E potentially ameliorates age-related phenotypes. Hence, this study aimed to determine the effects of the tocotrienol-rich fraction (TRF) and α-tocopherol (ATF) in protecting myoblasts from replicative senescence and promoting myogenic differentiation. Primary human myoblasts were cultured into young and senescent stages and were then treated with TRF or ATF for 24 h, followed by an analysis of cell proliferation, senescence biomarkers, cellular morphology and differentiation. Our data showed that replicative senescence impaired the normal regenerative processes of myoblasts, resulting in changes in cellular morphology, cell proliferation, senescence-associated β-galactosidase (SA-β-gal) expression, myogenic differentiation and myogenic regulatory factors (MRFs) expression. Treatment with both TRF and ATF was beneficial to senescent myoblasts in reclaiming the morphology of young cells, improved cell viability and decreased SA-β-gal expression. However, only TRF treatment increased BrdU incorporation in senescent myoblasts, as well as promoted myogenic differentiation through the modulation of MRFs at the mRNA and protein levels. MYOD1 and MYOG gene expression and myogenin protein expression were modulated in the early phases of myogenic differentiation. In conclusion, the tocotrienol-rich fraction is superior to α-tocopherol in ameliorating replicative senescence-related aberration and promoting differentiation via modulation of MRFs expression, indicating vitamin E potential in modulating replicative senescence of myoblasts.     

Characterization of in vitro cultured myoblasts isolated from duck (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Anas platyrhynchos</Emphasis>) embryo

Myoblasts isolated from duck embryonic muscle were purified and in vitro cultured. External characteristics were observed by using the immunofluorescence technique, and growth curve of duck embryonic myoblasts was established after measuring with the MTT method. Moreover, mRNA expression of three marker genes, the Desmin, the muscle creatine kinase (Mck) and the troponin C (Tnnc), which could reflect the development status of myofibers, were detected each 24 h for cultured cells by using the qPCR technique. Results showed that the in vitro cultured duck myoblasts went through a series of developmental stages, including the proliferation of myoblasts, the differentiation of multi-nuclei myotubes, and the formation of myofiber. The cultured duck embryonic myoblasts entered into a logarithmic stage approximately on the fourth day after seeding. Accompanying with its progressive growth before entering into the logarithmic phase, the myoblasts also showed some differentiation phenomena, reflected by a low expression level of Desmin and high expression level of the Mck and Tnnc genes. During the rapid growth of the logarithmic phase, there was a high expression of the Desmin gene, and a low expression level of the Mck gene and the Tnnc gene in the cultured myoblasts. The expression profiles of the three marker genes for muscle development could be used for distinguishing the different developmental stages of in vitro cultured myoblasts at the molecular level, which would be more accurate and more feasible than observing the external characteristics of the cultured cells.     

Influence of neurons on the occurrence of fibre types and myosin light chains in cultured presumptive slow and fast myoblasts

Myoblasts from 9-day-old quail embryo slow anterior latissimus dorsi (ALD) and fast posterior and latissimus dorsi (PLD) muscles were co-cultured with neurons. The presence of neurons allowed ALD-derived muscle fibres to express characteristic features of a slow muscle (occurrence of alpha' and of beta' fibres and predominance of slow myosin light chains). On the contrary, PLD-derived fibres did not differentiate into normal fast fibres (occurrence of alpha'-like fibres and absence of LC3f). These results are compared with the differentiation of ALD and PLD myoblasts in aneural condition. It is suggested that neurons can modify some phenotypic expression of presumptive slow or fast myoblasts.     

Enhanced proliferation of human skeletal muscle precursor cells derived from elderly donors cultured in estimated physiological (5%) oxygen

Human skeletal muscle precursor cells (myoblasts) have significant therapeutic potential and are a valuable research tool to study muscle cell biology. Oxygen is a critical factor in the successful culture of myoblasts with low (1–6%) oxygen culture conditions enhancing the proliferation, differentiation, and/or viability of mouse, rat, and bovine myoblasts. The specific effects of low oxygen depend on the myoblast source and oxygen concentration; however, variable oxygen conditions have not been tested in the culture of human myoblasts. In this study, muscle precursor cells were isolated from vastus lateralis muscle biopsies and myoblast cultures were established in 5% oxygen, before being divided into physiological (5%) or standard (20%) oxygen conditions for experimental analysis. Five percent oxygen increased proliferating myoblast numbers, and since low oxygen had no significant effect on myoblast viability, this increase in cell number was attributed to enhanced proliferation. The proportion of cells in the S (DNA synthesis) phase of the cell cycle was increased by 50%, and p21^Cip1 gene and protein expression was decreased in 5 versus 20% oxygen. Unlike in rodent and bovine myoblasts, the increase in myoD, myogenin, creatine kinase, and myosin heavy chain IIa gene expression during differentiation was similar in 5 and 20% oxygen; as was myotube hypertrophy. These data indicate for the first time that low oxygen culture conditions stimulate proliferation, whilst maintaining (but not enhancing) the viability and the differentiation potential of human primary myoblasts and should be considered as optimum conditions for ex-vivo expansion of these cells.