A description of genealogical rank changes in a troop of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata)

Rank changes among females of a troop of 154 Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) are described. A medium ranking female, with support from the alpha male, successfully challenged the alpha female. Following this dominance shift, almost all members of the two genealogical groups underwent rank changes. The observations provide some evidence that the role of alpha female may be competed for, just as the alpha male position is, in macaque social groups.     

Predatory threat of harpy eagles for yellow-breasted capuchin monkeys in the Atlantic Forest

We describe seven encounters between different harpy eagle individuals (Harpia harpyja) and a group of yellow-breasted capuchin monkeys (Sapajus xanthosternos) in Una Biological Reserve. These interactions lasted 58 min on average. In each of those encounters, the capuchin monkeys used particular behavioral strategies against the harpy eagle that were not employed in reaction to other aerial predators. We did not observe any successful predation events, but after one of those encounters an infant disappeared from the capuchin group. As a whole, these observations indicate that the presence of harpy eagles in the group’s home range increases predation risk for capuchin monkeys. The present report also suggests a reoccupation by H. harpyja of this area, as no previous recent records identify harpy eagle occurrence in Una Biological Reserve.     

Feeding behavior and diet of the Japanese monkey (Macaca fuscata yakui) on Yakushima Island,Japan

Feeding behavior in a troop of one subspecies of the Japanese monkey, the Yakuzaru (Macaca fuscata yakui), was observed for 407 hr on Yakushima Island between March and December 1976, after a three-month preliminary survey in 1975. The troop dwells in a mature warm temperate forest at a density of over 30 animals/km². The 5-min scanning technique was employed from August to December 1976, to detect the quantitative features of feeding behavior. The members of this troop fed on 76 plant species: on the leaves of 26, the fruits of 45, and other parts of 12 species. The Yakuzaru is essentially frugivorous. The pattern of food selection is discussed in relation to fruit production. The animals fed much more on the leaves of deciduous than of evergreen woody plants. “Selection ratio” the percentage of time spent feeding on each species to the percentage abundance of each species in the sample strip, was calculated in order to evaluate food selection from the plant community. In addition, the food habits of this subspecies were compared with that of six other populations in various habitats in Japan, by computing the similarity index for the woody plant community, all woody plant food species, and all major woody plant food species.     

Effects of predation on diel activity and habitat use of the coral-reef shrimp Cinetorhynchus hendersoni (Rhynchocinetidae)

Nonlethal effects of predators on prey behaviour are still poorly understood, although they may have cascading effects through food webs. Underwater observations and experiments were conducted on a shallow fringing coral reef in Malaysia to examine whether predation risks affect diel activity, habitat use, and survival of the rhynchocinetid shrimp Cinetorhynchus hendersoni. The study site was within a protected area where predatory fish were abundant. Visual surveys and tethering experiments were conducted in April–May 2010 to compare the abundance of shrimps and predatory fishes and the relative predation intensity on shrimps during day and night. Shrimps were not seen during the day but came out of refuges at night, when the risk of being eaten was reduced. Shrimp preferences for substrata of different complexities and types were examined at night when they could be seen on the reef; complex substrata were preferred, while simple substrata were avoided. Shrimps were abundant on high-complexity columnar–foliate Porites rus, but tended to make little use of branching Acropora spp. Subsequent tethering experiments, conducted during daytime in June 2013, compared the relative mortality of shrimps on simple (sand–rubble, massive Porites spp.) and complex (P. rus, branching Acropora spp.) substrata under different predation risk scenarios (i.e., different tether lengths and exposure durations). The mortality of shrimps with short tethers (high risk) was high on all substrata while, under low and intermediate predation risks (long tethers), shrimp mortality was reduced on complex corals relative to that on sand–rubble or massive Porites spp. Overall, mortality was lowest on P. rus. Our study indicates that predation risks constrain shrimp activity and habitat choice, forcing them to hide deep inside complex substrata during the day. Such behavioural responses to predation risks and their consequences for the trophic role of invertebrate mesoconsumers warrant further investigation, especially in areas where predatory fishes have been overexploited.     

A review of sexual initiating behavior by male and female cynomolgus monkeys and some species comparisons

The sexual initiating behavior of male and female cynomolgus monkeys (Macaca fascicularis) observed during standard laboratory tests is reviewed and compared with that of rhesus monkeys (M. mulatta) observed under identical conditions. Species differences in sexual behavior are related here to differences in habitat, sexual dimorphism, and the dominance gradient between the sexes. Compared with rhesus monkeys, cynomolgus monkeys appear to be more arboreal, less sexually dimorphic, and have a smaller dominance gradient between the sexes. They exhibit a facultative single-mount copulatory pattern rather than the serial mount pattern of the rhesus monkey. Female cynomolgus monkeys are less dominated than rhesus females by their male partners. Direct aggression between mates is more frequent and redirected aggression occurs less often than in rhesus monkeys. These behavioral differences affect the interpretation of changes in initiation rates that occur (1) during the menstrual cycle, (2) when females are ovariectomized and given hormone replacement treatments, and (3) when males are castrated and treated with androgens. We conclude that estradiol in the female and testosterone in the male increase the sexual motivation of both the treated and the untreated partner. Valid interpretations of changes in initiation rates depend on accurate and exclusive definitions of behavior and on a consideration of the behavioral context in which they are made.     

Menstrual cycle and some other related aspects of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata)

The menstrual cycle and some other related aspects of Japanese monkeys (Macaca fuscata) were dealt with in this paper. Almost all the monkeys had regular menstrual cycles only in the mating season, and had no menstrual cycles, or only irregular ones, in the non-mating season. The average length of the menstrual cycle in the mating season was 26.3 ±5.4 days. Many monkeys had a tendency to have their own individual and relatively regular cycles. Ninety out of 108 monkeys kept in the air-conditioned quarters for five years showed “periodical changes” essentially coincident with the changes of outdoor season, and this fact suggests that the rhythm of the seasonal change of Japanese monkeys remains for a relatively long period even if the monkeys are kept in air-conditioned quarters where room temperature and lighting are kept constant throughout the year. Vaginal smear, cervical mucus, sexual skin, etc. were observed in relation to ovulation. These characters showed cyclic changes with menstrual cycles in about half of all cases observed, but ovulation occurred even in the cases in which no cyclic change was observed. Therefore, it was not necessarily easy to estimate the ovulation by observing these characters.     

A field study of the pigtail monkey (Macaca nemestrina)

A field study of the pigtail monkey (Macaca nemestrina) was conducted in Malaysia. An initial six month survey revealed a badly disturbed, diminishing population. Intensive observation required prolonged extensive habituation efforts including a modified form of provisionization and the use of a trained captive pigtail monkey. The pigtail monkey was found to be an arboreal deep forest animal which, nonetheless, came to the ground more often than any other monkey in the forests of Malaya. Responses observed in the natural habitat could not be differentiated from those seen in captive groups; but response frequencies differed. Social patterns observed were similar to those seen in other macaques but differed notably from those seen in sympatric leaf monkeys. Travel patterns, feeding, agonistic responses, sexual behavior, play and other responses are described and discussed.     

Extensor muscles of the thigh of crab-eating monkeys (Macaca fascicularis)

On the basis of 44 hindlimbs of 11 male and 11 female crab-eating monkeys (Macaca fascicularis), the morphology of the extensor group of thigh muscles is described and some functional indices (Stern, 1971) are calculated. For the attachment and measurements of muscles, the results obtained in this study generally agreed with those of otherMacaca species and New World monkeys reported by various authors. The functional indices did not show any significant differences between the right and left hindlimbs or between male and female series, and the following facts were confirmed: the origin of m. sartorius has a more anterior attachment than is found in man and anthropoid apes; the insertion of m. sartorius has a more distal attachment than is found in man and a more proximal than is found in anthropoid apes; the m. rectus femoris has only one tendon of origin in all cases; and, the origin of m. vastus lateralis is intermediate between good leaper and slow climber types.     

Self-aggression in macaques: Five case studies

Spontaneous self-aggressive behaviors were observed in five adult male rhesus monkeys (Macaca mulatta) housed at a university facility. All were individually caged, were free of intercurrent disease, and were being utilized in ongoing research studies. The self-aggressive behaviors observed included self-biting, self-clasping, self-slapping, self-rubbing and threatening of body parts. In several cases, wounds were inflicted and medical treatment was required due to the severity of the lesions. A review of the animals' clinical histories revealed an increased level of self-aggressive behavior in four of five monkeys during such stressful or stimulating conditions as movement of the animal to a new cage, movement of animals out of the room or escape of other monkeys from their cages. The frequency with which these behaviors occurred was quantitated experimentally. The results revealed an increased level of self-aggressive behavior in two of these animals during the videotaped sessions in response to aggressive contacts with the investigator. In contrast, one monkey exhibited self-aggressive behavior both clinically and experimentally in the absence of environmental stimuli or human contact. Clinical management of self-aggressive monkeys included housing monkeys only with physically smaller primates, decreasing the level of environmental stimuli, and drug therapy. Haloperidol was used with success in one animal that exhibited severe self-aggressive behavior.     

The effect of female call on male howling in red howler monkeys(Alouatta seniculus)

Howler (Alouatta spp.)females often produce loud calls together with the males. Sometimes these howls are not heard above the much louder male call, but on other occasions most of the howls are produced by the females. Observations indicate that female howls are aggressive. Females howl at other troop females and at extratroop females; they also sit close to their mates and howl at other males. I suggest that howling by the females with their mate is important in strengthening the pair bond whereby the male recognizes his infants and acts protectively toward them. Playback experiments of female howls elicited more response from the males than did recordings of male/female and male-only howls, supporting the hypothesis that females howl in order to incite competition among the males.     

Cytogenetics of ticks (Acari: Ixodoidea)

Chromosomes and sex determination of 9 species of Haemaphysalis assigned to 4 subgenera are described. H. (tAlloceraea) kitaokai possesses an XX∶XO sex chromosome system with 18 autosomes plus XX in females; 18 plus X in males. H. (Kaiseriana) hystricis has 18 +XX and 18 + XY in females and males, respectively, in most specimens, but a supernumerary chromosome is present in some individuals. A supernumerary chromosome was also observed in 1 male H. (Aborphysalis) formosensis. These two species are the second and third species of ticks reported to have supernumerary chromosomes. H. formosensis, H. (Kaiseriana) bispinosa, H. (Haemaphysalis) campanulata, H. (H.) flava, H. (H.) megaspinosa, H. (H.) japonica, and H. (H.) pentalagi possess 20 autosomes plus 2 sex chromosomes in females and 20+1 sex chromosomes in males. Phylogenetic relationships within the genus Haemaphysalis are briefly discussed.     

Inter-colonial incompatibility and aggressive interactions inPristomyrmex pungens (Hymenoptera: Formicidae)

Previous workers (Tsuji & Itô 1986) have presented evidence that suggests individuals of the Japanese queenless ant,Pristomyrmex pungens (Formicidae, Myrmicinae) which is an obligatorily thelytokous species, can recognize individuals of “home” and those of “other” colonies. The data presented here are derived from an improved experimental set (transfer between foraging areas) and support the existence of colony recognition mechanisms. I also present some data on “natural” inter-colony interactions observed in the field. The studied population was divided into many distinct colonies (they were not unicolonial) and inter-colonial exchange was considered to be inhibited by aggressive interactions during inter-colonial encouters. During encounters between individuals from different colonies, fighting was often observed, and sometimes resulted in the death of combatants. Dead or wounded combatants were never carried into the nest of the winner's colony.     

Feeding Ecology of Padogobius nigricans (Canestrini, 1867) and P. bonelli (Bonaparte, 1846) in Aggia River (Umbria,Italy) and Their Diet Overlap

The Arno goby Padogobius nigricans is an endemic species to Central Italy. The populations of this species are in sharp decline due to habitat modifications and potentially competition with Padanian goby Padogobius bonelli, an endemic species to Northern Italy, introduced in some watercourses of Central Italy. The purposes of this paper were to analyze dietary composition of the two species, determine the degree of overlap in their diets and investigate the feeding ecology of P. nigricans in terms of absence and presence of the alien species. Specimens were collected from the Aggia River, a tributary of Tiber River. Gut contents were analyzed and prey items were identified to the lowest recognizable taxa and counted. All the obtained results showed that P. nigricans and P. bonelli in the Aggia River share a similar diet. Both species fed extensively on Chironomids and no statistically significant ontogenetic changes in feeding habits were found. A high degree of diet overlap was observed. Diet of P. nigricans and P. bonelli also included fish and where the species live in syntopy, individuals belonging to Padogobius genus were found in stomach, suggesting that mutual predation may occur.     

Development of infant social isolate monkeys (Macaca mulatta) in their isolation environments

This study was designed to more clearly define thetreatment of early social isolation. Four newborn infant rhesus monkeys, (Macaca mulatta) were raised in social isolation and their behavioral developmentduring their sojourn in isolation was compared to the behavioral development of four controls which were reared by mothers. The controls were matched with the isolates for age and sex and both groups were studied for 30 weeks. The following conclusions resulted from this study:

1. Infant rhesus monkeys raised in laboratory cages do not display facial expressions very frequently, whether they are isolate-reared or alone with a mother. A search of the literature indicated that facial expressions do not occur frequently early in life even when peers are provided.
2. Isolates spent more time looking at human observers, at the nonsocial environment, and at themselves than did controls while controls looked a their mothers or slept.
3. Isolates showed more walking and more manual exploration of the cage and of themselves than did controls but controls did more cage climbing and jumping, and the latter was often oriented toward the mother. The isolates moved more slowly and awkwardly than did the controls.
4. Isolates did not make as extensive use of towels in their cages as we had expected. Controls were in contact with their mothers much more frequently than isolates were in contact with their towels.
5. Abnormal movements such as rocking, self-grasping, and autoeroticism, appeared in the isolates before the end of thefirst month. Thus, the first month of life is evidently extremely crucial for the development of abnormal behavior. Though many abnormal movements first appear during the first month, each individual isolate apparently does not settle down to his own favorite type of weirdness until well after seven months of age.

     

Learning and perception of oddity problems by lemurs and seven species of monkey

Eight nonhuman primate species were compared in three experiments utilizing the oddity paradigm. The sample included 4 lemurs (Lemur catta), 26 Old World Monkeys (Macaca mulatta, M. nemestrina, M. speciosa, andCercopithecus nictitans) and 21 New World Monkeys (Cebus apella, Lagothrix humboldti andSaimiri sciurea). EveryS was first trained 60 days on “outside oddity” problems. Next,Ss solved “outside” oddity problems constituted from two short and two tall cylinders, and were tested for their perception of oddity withDavis andMcDonald's (1962) technique of varying the height of the centerplaced but nonreinforced stimulus. In the final experiment,Ss were given ambiguous oddity problems that could be solved either for form or color cues, andEs recorded preference. Cebus and woolly monkeys formed oddity learning sets as well as or better than any of the Macaque monkeys, but relatively poor performances were made by squirrel monkeys, spotnose monkeys, and lemurs. Woolly monkeys were outstandingly accurate in their perception of oddity based on changing stimulus height, no other species approaching them in this skill. Old World Monkeys were much more likely than New World Monkeys to use color as a cue.     

A New Record of a Host-Parasitoid Interaction: Hymenoepimecis veranii Lofredo & Penteado-Dias, 2009 (Hymenoptera: Ichneumonidae) Parasitizing Araneus orgaos Levi, 1991 (Araneae: Araneidae)

The genus Hymenoepimecis only occurs in the Neotropics. In some species of this genus, the larval stage modifies the behavior of the spider hosts, inducing then to construct a modified web. The wasp Hymenoepimecis veranii has been previously described as an ectoparasitoid of the spider Araneus omnicolor. This study provides detailed information about the natural history of the host-parasitoid interaction involving this wasp with a new host, the spider Araneus orgaos (Araneae: Araneidae), which occurs sympatrically with A. omnicolor.     

Descriptive and contextual analysis of eye covering behavior in captive rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta)

An abnormal behavior pattern (covering the eyes with one or both hands) is studied in rhesus macaques (Macaca mulatta). In adults, the eye covering pattern is more frequent and less variable in form than in youngsters; in addition, intermediate forms with play are observed. The frequency of eye covering increases when subjects are placed in an aversive situation (social isolation) and decreases when they perform another behavior (feeding). At the same time, eye covering increases in the evening due to the anticipation of light-dark transition by subjects. The spread of eye covering by way of social transmission is considered.     

Molecular evidence to reconcile taxonomic instability in mahseer species (Pisces: Cyprinidae) of India

The mahseers are an important group of fishes endemic to Asia with most species considered threatened. Conservation plans to save declining wild populations are hindered by unstable taxonomy, and detailed systematic review could form a solid platform for future management and conservation. D-loop and cytochrome c oxidase I (COI) mtDNA sequences were examined in nine mahseer species of Tor, Neolissochilus, and Naziritor. Pseudogenes amplified in a portion of the species limited the utility of the D-loop region. ABGD analysis, NJ, ML, and MP methods and genetic distance (TrN?+?I?+?G) using COI data revealed concordant species delimiting patterns. The three genera were monophyletic, separated as distinct clades (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.064 to 0.106), and Naziritor was flagged as a separate genus, distinct from Puntius (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.196). Out of seven nominal species known for Tor cogeners from India, only five were recovered with mtDNA data (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.000 to 0.037) and two species could not be distinguished with the molecular data set employed. Tor mosal, synonymized as Tor putitora, was rediscovered as a distinct species (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.031) based on its type locality. Tor mussulah was confirmed as a separate species (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.019 to 0.026). Two valid species, Tor macrolepis and T. mosal mahanadicus, were not distinct from T. putitora (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.00). The high divergence with mtDNA data failed to validate T. mosal mahanadicus as a subspecies of T. mosal (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.031). Morphological outliers discovered within the distribution range of Tor tor (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.022 to 0.025) shared the same lineage with T. putitora (TrN?+?I?+?G 0.002 to 0.005), indicating a new extended distribution of the Himalayan mahseer T. putitora in the rivers of the Indian central plateau. The findings indicate the need for integrating molecular and morphological tools for taxonomic revision of the Tor and Naziritor genera, so that taxa are precisely defined for accurate in situ and ex situ conservation decisions.     

Physical localization of rRNA genes by fluorescence in situ hybridization (FISH) and analysis of spacer length variants of 45S rRNA (slvs) genes in some species of genus Sesbania

The somatic chromosome numbers 2n = 12 in S. macrantha, S. coerulescens and 2n = 24 in S. simplicuscula were determined, additionally the contradictory chromosome numbers of S. bispinosa (2n = 12, 13, 14, 24) and S. pachycarpa (2n 12, 14) were determined as 2n = 24 and 2n = 14, respectively. The number of 5S rDNA sites in chromosome pair 1 was highly conserved in all the diploid and tetraploid species studied irrespective of their geographic distribution, suggesting that all diploid and tetraploid species/cytotypes of Sesbania analyzed in the present study are in close proximity. Cytogenetic mapping of the 45S multi-gene family was also carried out using fluorescence in situ hybridization. 45S rDNA was consistently located on short or long arms of two sub-metacentric chromosome pairs except on one chromosome pair in S. macrantha and on three chromosome pairs in S. bispinosa and S. cannabina. Out of these nine species, we observed the homogenization of intergenic spacer in six species and find only one spacer length variant (slv) located on one to three chromosome loci. However, three of the species were observed to have two slvs located on two different chromosomes. The species were grouped as per their evolutionary relationship on the basis of the results of the present study.