Effect of prey availability on foraging and production efficiencies of larvalMetasyrphus corollae [Dipt.: Syrphidae]

We determined the effects of number of prey and the area over which they were distributed on the number of prey eaten and the production efficiency ofMetasyrphus corollae (F.) (formelySyrphus corollae F.) larvae. We hypothesized that, for a given number of prey offered per day, increased plant size would reduce foraging efficiency and production efficiency. Also, increased prey number was expected to increase production efficiency. Individual larvae were offered 10, 20, 40 or 60 pea aphids each day on plants with 7.5, 35 or 73 cm² surface area. When more aphids were offered, larvae ofM. corollae killed more of them but left larger aphid carcasses. Foraging efficiency (percentage of available aphids eaten) declined as aphid abundance and plant size increased. Foraging costs were not decreased by increasing prey density and therefore production efficiency was not increased.

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Résumé Les effets du nombre de proies et de la surface sur laquelle elles ont été distribuées, sur le nombre de proies mangées et sur le rendement de la production des larves deMetasyrphus corollae (F.) ont été déterminés. Nous avons supposé que, pour un nombre donné de proies offertes par jour, le rendement de la quête alimentaire et de la production diminueraient avec l'augmentation de la taille de la plante. De même, on supposait que le nombre croissant de proies augmentait le rendement de la production. On offrait chaque jour à des larves individuelles 10, 20, 40 ou 50 aphides du pois, sur des plantes dont la surface était 7,5, 35 ou 73 cm². Quand on offrait plus d'aphides, les larves deM. corollae les tuaient, mais elles laissaient alors de plus gros cadavres. Le rendement de la quête alimentaire (pourcentage d'aphides disponibles mangés) diminuait lorsque l'abondance des aphides et la taille de la plante augmentaient. Les couts de la quête alimentaire n'étaient pas réduits par l'augmentation du nombre de proies et ainsi le rendement de la production n'était pas augmenté.

     

Preliminary experiments on the potential of hoverflies [Dipt.: Syrphidae] for the control of aphids under glass

Control ofAphis gossypii Glover populations on isolated cucumber plants grown at 21°C was achieved on days 2, 3, or 4 by larvae ofMetasyrphus corollae (F.) hatched from eggs laid on the plants on day 0. With 45% of hoverfly eggs viable, greater than 9 aphids per egg at the end of oviposition resulted in a failure of control. Larvae 1, 2, or 3 days old prevented aphid increase unless there were more than 15, 26 or 41 aphids per larva respectively. Continuous control on single caged cucumber plants was possible providing that the presence of 1 gravid hoverfly was maintained in the cage, but elimination of the aphid population was observed in only 1 instance. A possible role for hoverflies in crop protection under glass is discussed.

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Résumé On parvenait à réduire des populations d'Aphis gossypii Glover fixés sur plants isolés de concombres, croissant à 21°C, au moyen de larves deMetasyrphus corollae (F.) écloses d'œufs pondus sur les plantes au tout début de l'expérience (jour 0) en 2, 3 ou 4 jours. Avec 45% d'œufs viables de Syrphes, une proportion supérieure à 9 pucerons/œuf en fin de ponte, entraine l'échec du “control”. Les larves agées de 1, 2 ou 3 jours empêchaient l'accroissement des populations à moins qu'il y eut plus de 15, 26 ou 41 Aphides/larve respectivement. Le “control” continu sous cage sur de simples plants de concombres était possible pourvu que la présence d'une seule ♂ gravide de Syrphe soit maintenue en cage, mais l'élimination de la population de pucerons n'était observée que dans 1 seul cas. Le róle possible des Syrphes dans la protection des cultures protégées est discutée.

     

Medetera aldrichii larval feeding behavior and prey consumption [Dipt.: Dolichopodidae]

Predatory behavior ofMedetera aldrichii Wheeler (Dolichopodidae) larvae was observed in bark-Lucite sandwiches infested with immature broods of the bark beetle preyDendroctonus pseudotsugae Hopkins (Scolytidae). Predator larvae could not penetrate unmined phloem or prey galleries tightly packed with frass, but moved through loose frass and bark-Lucite interspaces formed when the mined inner bark dried. At high prey densities interspace formation and gallerly contiguity enabled the predator to move freely and attack several prey in rapid succession. At low prey densities the predator was frequently isolated from prey by impenetrable strips of phloem. Predator larvae maintained singly in small plastic arenas consumed an average of 14.7 immature prey, but required only 6.2 prey when reared exclusively on large prey.     

Feeding economy of larvae of a flower fly,Metasyrphus corollae [Dip.: Syrphidae]: Partial consumption of prey

Metasyrphus corollae (F.) larvae ingested aphid contents at a decreasing rate over time because the contents of the aphid became increasingly difficult to obtain as the body of the prey was emptied. Starved larvae usually handled prey longer than wellfed larvae. Younger starved larvae fed longer than older larvae. Larvae starved for 24 h ate the most of a prey. Larvae held prey, on average, until 71% of dry mass was extracted after which the prey carcass was discarded. Prey handling time and amount of each prey consumed were determined by size and hunger of larvae and degree of depletion of prey contents.

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Résumé Les larves deMetasyrphus corollae (F.) ingèrent de plus en plus lentement le contenu des pucerons en fonction du temps car ce contenu est de plus en plus difficile à extraire puisque la proie se vide. Les larves qui ont été privées de nourriture se nourrissent généralement plus longuement que les larves bien nourries, et les jeunes larves affamées plus longuement que les plus agées. Les larves qui n'ont pas mangé depuis 24 h sont celles qui consomment le plus. Les larves retiennent la proie, en moyenne, jusqu'à ce que 71% de son poids sec ait été extrait, après quoi la carcasse de la proie est jetée. Le temps de manipulation et la quantité consommée de la proie sont déterminés par la taille et la faim de la larve, ainsi que par l'épuisement du contenu de la proie. Il n'y a aucune preuve consistante que les larves deM. corollae répondent directement au nombre de proies.

     

Effect of hunger on the allocation of time among pea plants by the larvae of an aphidophagous hover fly,Eupeodes corollae [Dipt: Syrphidae]

We observed the movement of predatory larvae of the syrphid flyEupeodes corollae (F.) (formerlyMetasyrphus corollae) among small pea plants with and without aphids. Starved larvae spent longer time than well-fed larvae on similar plants and both groups of larvae stayed longer on plants with aphids than on plants without aphids. On plants with aphids, larvae which failed to capture prey left the plant sooner than those which captured aphids. The capture of at least one aphid on a plant increased the persistence of syrphid larvae. The average rate of energy gain was higher for well-fed larvae than for starved larvae because starved larvac stayed on plants even when their rate of return was lower. When larvae that had captured aphids left plants, their rate of energy gain, tended to be lower than at any time following capture of the 2^nd, aphid. The 1^st aphid was captured in less time than similar larvae spent on plants without aphids. Time between captures of aphids by well-fed larvae was less than the time such larvae spent on plants without aphids. Among starved larvae, the intercatch intervals were similar to the time on plants without aphids. We discuss the significance of these results relative to current predator foraging theory and the efficiency ofE. corollae as a biological control agent.      

Coexistence of predatoryMuscina stabulans andophyra aenescens [Dipt.: Muscidae] with dipterous prey in poultry manure

Significant relationships between the emergence of adult predatory species,Ophyra aenescens (Wiedemann) andMuscina stabulans (Fallen) and prey,Musca domestica L.,Fannia femoralis (Stein) andF. canicularis (L.) existed on 10 poultry ranches in southern California. Predatory species may function in natural control at intervals throughout the year, especially on predominant prey,F. femoralis andF. canicularis. Dipterous species, especiallyO. aenescens andF. femoralis, were only moderately influenced by the surface area of breeding habitat available. Accuracy in the measurement of population trends in Diptere may be enhanced by increasing the number of samples at any given ranch rather than the addition of study ranches. Parasitism, ranging from 22.6–37.8% of collected puparia, involved principally 3 species,Muscidifurax zaraptor Kogan & Legner,M. raptor Girault & Sanders andSpalangia cameroni Perkins.      

Fitness of the hover flies Episyrphus balteatus and Eupeodes corollae faced with limited larval prey

Differences in adult oviposition behavior of the aphidophagous hover flies Episyrphus balteatus (De Geer) and Eupeodes corollae (F.) (Diptera: Syrphidae) led us to formulate and test hypotheses concerning their larval behaviour. In laboratory experiments, larval E. balteatus lived longer when starved than larval E. corollae, and this difference increased with age at which starvation commenced. Larval E. balteatus crawled faster than larval E. corollae, and this difference increased under starvation. Limited aphid supply reduced larval and pupal survival more for E. corollae than for E. balteatus. However, the effect of limited aphid supply on adult body size did not differ for the two species. E. balteatus oviposition and larval behavior make it a more promising candidate for introducing to control Diuraphis noxia (Mordwilko) (Homoptera: Aphididae) where this aphid has become an exotic pest.     

Suitability ofScapteriscus moles crickets [Ort.: Gryllotalpidae] as hosts ofEuphasiopteryx depleta [Dipt.: Tachinidae]

Euphasiopteryx depleta (Wied) flies successfully developed in the mole cricketsScapteriscus borellii Giglio-Tos andScapteriscus vicinus Scudder, as well as in the short-tailed cricket,Anurogryllus sp., after artificially placing larvae under their pronota. Using this technique, no relation was found between the number of larvae placed on each cricket and the resulting number of puparia obtained from the cricket. In all cases, the number of flies emerging from the puparia was small, with females failing to mature reproductively. AsE. depleta has been reared from field collectedScapteriscus spp., the exact reasons for lack of maturation remain unknown.Anurogryllus sp. can be considered a probable alternate host forE. depleta.      

Advances in rearing ofLixophaga diatraeae [Dipt.: Tachinidae]

Larvae ofDiatraea saccharalis (F) were reared on artificial diet in 30-ml cups (1–3 larvae/cup). Adults of the larviparous tachinid parasite,Lixophaga diatraeae (Townsend), were removed from emergence and holding cages with a modified vacuum sweeper. Maggots were extracted from 10 to 14-day-old female flies, that had been disinfected with 1% NaOCl by one of two methods. In method I, fly uteri were removed and placed in a 10-ml vial containing a 0.15% agar-water solution with 3–4 glass beads; rapid vibration of the vial ruptured the uteri and distributed the maggots in the agar solution. In method 2, whole flies were blended with 50-ml water in a blender, and maggots were separated from fly particles by screening; then they were suspended in the agar solution. A procedure was devised for determining the number of maggots obtained by each method. The maggot-agar solution was injected into cups containing host larvae and maggots sought out and parasitized the host larvae; however, the percentage producing puparia generally decreased with increases of host larva and/or maggot density. Puparia were harvested from cups by hand and washed in 1% NaOCl to disinfect and destroy host larval webbing.     

Studies onBonnetia comta [Dipt.: Tachinidae] parasitizingAgrotis ipsilon [Lep.: Noctuidae] larvae

Laboratory studies showed that 1st-instarBonnetia comta (Fallén) maggots (planidia) had a significant impact (P<0.05) on mortality of all black cutworm (BCW),Agrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel), instars, either by killing 1st- and 2nd-instar BCWs 2.3 to 9.7 days after parasitization or by producing a puparium from older host instars. Diet consumption and utilization by BCW larvae parasitized byB. comta as 4th instars were similar to those of nonparasitized larvae until 1 to 2 days before the parasitoid emerged. In a 2-year host exposure study in Iowa, it was found thatB. comta primarily parasitized released BCWs in June through September and did not seem to play a role in controlling the damaging 1st generation of BCW larvae. Techniques were developed to produce and store large numbers ofB. comta planidia.Bonnetia comta deposited large numbers of planidia on filter paper treated with a fecal supernatant. These planidia could be stored on filter paper in a covered Petri dish at 4.4°C for 5 days with minimal mortality. Preliminary field data show that planidia placed around corn seedlings infested with 4th-instar BCW larvae do parasitize the pest and reduce the hosts cutting potential.     

Effectiveness of larvae ofSyrphus ribesii andS. Corollae [Diptera: Syrphidae] as predators onMyzus persicae [Homoptera: Aphididae]

Capture efficiency, handling time and functonal response to prey density were studied in larvae ofSyrphus ribesii (L.) andS. corrollae (Fabr.) eatingMyzus persicae Sulz. at 20°C, 16 hrs light. First instar larvae ofS. ribesii had distinctly higher capture efficiency than 1st instar larvae ofS. corollae, both versus 1st instar and adult aphids. Second and 3rd instar larvae of both species seemed to prefer adult rather than 1st instar aphids, but no distinct difference in capture efficiency between the species was found. On comparable stages,S. ribesii always had shorter handling time thanS. corollae and it appeared in both species to be correlated with size of prey and predator. Handling time was thus shortest when 3rd instar larvae consumed 1st instar aphids. During one hour, 3rd instar larvae ofS. ribesii consumed aphids in quantities almost linearly dependent on aphid density (5, 10, 20 and 40 adult aphids/100 cm²), although the response also could roughly be described byHolling's “basic functional response curve”. On the contrary, 3rd instar larvae ofS. corollae soon reached a maximum consumption during one hour, being almost constant (5–7 aphids) at prey densities ≥10 aphids/100 cm².

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Résumé L'efficacité prédatrice (proportion de toutes les rencontres entre larves de syrphes et pucerons se terminant par la capture et la succion de pucerons), la durée d'activité et la relation entre l'absorption de nourriture et la densité des proies (5, 10, 20 et 40Myzus persicae Sulz. aptères au 5^e stade larvaire/100 cm²) ont été étudiées chez des larves deSyrphus ribesii (L.) etS. corollae (Fabr.) à 20°C et 16 h de photopériode. Les L₁ deS. ribesii présentent une efficacité prédatrice des pucerons des premier et dernier stades nettement plus élevée que les L₁ deS. corollae (S. ribesii: 71 et 38%;S. corollae: 42 et 0%). Chez les larves des 2^e et 3^e stades, on n'a observé aucune différence d'efficacité prédatrice entre les 2 espèces, mais une préférence pour les pucerons adultes. La durée d'activité deS. ribesii est dans tous les cas plus courte que celle deS. corollae pour un même stade de larves et de pucerons. Une corrélation positive semble exister entre la taille des proies et celle des prédateurs. La durée d'activité est la plus courte pour des prédateurs en L₃ s'alimentant de pucerons au premier stade (1,3 mn chezS. ribesii et 2,3 mn chezS. corollae). L'absorption de nourriture enregistrée en une heure chezS. ribesii varie presque linéairement avec la densité des pucerons; elle correspond d'autre part assez bien à la formule deHolling. L'absorption de nourriture parS. corollae atteint un maximum de 7 pucerons à l'heure et demeure pratiquement constante à partir d'une densité≥10 pucerons/100 cm².

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The author wishes to thank techn. ass.Bodil Horgen for assistance during the experiments     

Biology ofclausicella suturata [Dipt.: Tachinidae] a parasite ofEctomyelois ceratoniae [Lep.: Phycitidae]

The tachinid flyClausicella suturata Rondani is a solitary parasite ofEctomyelois ceratoniae (Zeller). It was grown under laboratory conditions (26±0.5°C, 55±5% R.H.) and the host-parasite relationships were studied. The different stages of the parasite were briefly described. The eggs are deposited on the carob (Ceratonia siliqua L.,Caesalpiniaceae) pods, near the openings of the host's tunnels and hatch immediately. The Ist instar maggot is directed by the web fibers of the host towards the caterpillar which is hidden in the carob pod. The parasites develop normally only in 4th and 5th instar caterpillars. The parasitized caterpillar spins its cocoon inside the carob pod before being killed by the parasite. The fully grown maggot leaves the host and pupates inside its cocoon. Adult longevity is dependent upon the presence of carbohydrate in the diet. Maximal male and female longevity (50% survival of 21 and 17.5 days respectively) was reached on a carbohydrate diet and water, at 26°C and 55% R.H. Newly emerged females readily mate with one or two-day old males. The average fecundity of a female is 202 eggs, deposited during 13.6 days, after an incubation period of 6.9 days. Superparasitism is common in nature but only one maggot is successful in completing its development.     

Natural parasitism of the chrysanthemum leaf-minerChromatomyia syngenesiae H. [Dipt.: Agromyzidae]

Twenty-one species of parasites were reared from natural populations of the chrysanthemum leaf miner,Chromatomyia syngenesiae Hardy in Southern England. A further species was reared from glasshouse crop plants infested with leaf-miners and left outside. The parasite community attacking the crop plants was otherwise similar to the natural host plant community. The relevance of this work to the biological control of chrysanthemum leaf-miner is discussed.

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Résumé Vingt et une espèces de parasites larvaires furent élevées à partir de populations naturelles de mineuses des feuilles du chrysanthèmes dans le sud de l'Angleterre. Une espèce supplémentaire fut élevée à partir de plantes provenant de serre infestée de mineuses et exposée dans les habitats naturels. Le complexe parasitaire qui s'installe sur ces plantes fut analogue en toutes autre manières à celle trouvée sur les plantes spontanées. L'intérêt de ce travail pour la lutte biologique contre les mineuses du chrysanthème est discuté.

     

Some effects of a cyclic and an acyclic juvenoid onAphidoletes aphidimyza [Dipt.: Cecidomyiidae]

Ethyl 4(4′-benzylphenoxy)-3methyl-2 butenoate (cpdI) and ethyl (2E, 4E)-3, 7, 11 trimethyl-2, 4-dodecadienoate (cpdII) proved to affect the hatch and embryonic development of the eggs of the aphids' predatorAphidoletes aphidimyza. The median effective concentrations of these compounds were 0.42 and 0.0029% respectively. The juvenoids inhibited the development of treated 4 days old larvae, L₄, to the adult stage. The median effective concentrations were 0.1 and 0.0011% for cpdI and cpdII respectively. The selective effects of the two juvenoids againstMyzus persicae and its predatorA. aphidimyza are discussed.     

Biological studies withChrysocharis parksi [Hym.: Eulophidae] a parasite ofLiriomyza spp. [Dipt.: Agromyzidae]

Biological studies withChrysocharis parksi Crawford, a parasite of agromyzid leafminers, were conducted.C. parksi successfully parasitized the following species in the genusLiriomyza Mik.,L. huidobrensis (Blanchard),L. sativae Blanchard,L. trifolii (Burgess), andL. trifoliearum Spencer. Successful parasite development was recorded from 8 plant families and 16 genera. Host plants which were suitable for leafminer development to the adult stage were also suitable for parasite development. Mean immature developmental period (egg to adult, usingL. trifolii as the host) at 21.1°, 26.7°, and 32.2° C was (for both sexes) 23, 14, and 14 days, respectively. Longevity of females provided only water was inversely related to temperature; significantly longer survival occurred at 21.1° C (5.0 days) compared to 26.7° C and 32.2° C (3.2 and 2.1 days, respectively). The addition of honey to the diet significantly improved longevity of both sexes at all temperatures. Adult female parasites which were provided an average of 33.0L. trifolii larvae per day produced an average of 135 offspring at a constant 26.7° C.C. parksi host-fed on ca. 3.7 leafminer larvae per day over an 11-day adult lifespan.      

Syrphid predators (Dipt.: Syrphidae) of gall forming aphids (Hom.: Aphididae) in mediterranean areas: implications for biological control of fruit trees pests

Most syrphids feeding on gall forming aphids belong to Pipizini tribe. The biology of two species relatively abundant in Mediterranean areas of Southeastern Spain,Pipiza festiva Meigen, 1822 andHeringia heringii (Zetterstedt, 1843), is given after 3 years of detailed survey. In this paper we study the relationship of both species of syrphids with the gall-forming aphids associated with trees of the genusPistacia (Anacardiaceae). We also establish the relationship syrphid-aphid-fruit tree, the relative abundance in each crop, length of preimaginal stages, aphid-specificity and parasitism. At last we show the seasonal adaptations of these hoverflies and their role in biological control of some fruit tree aphid pests.     

Larviposition response ofBonnetia comta [Dipt.: Tachinidae] to a kairomone ofAgrotis ipsilon [Lep.: Noctuidae]

A kairomone in the frass and vomitus of larvae ofAgrotis ipsilon (Hufnagel) (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) triggered larviposition activity in its habitual parasitoidBonnetia comta (Fallen) (Diptera: Tachinidae). Laboratory bioassays showed that no measurable differences existed in the larviposition-stimulating activity of frass fromA. ipsilon larvae reared on 3 different food sources. In other tests, corn seedlings damaged by late-instar larvae ofA. ipsilon elicited strong larviposition activity inB. comta; other corn seedlings damaged with a razor blade did not elicit strong activity. Frass aged for 8-days was only slightly less effective at releasing a larviposition response when compared to fresh frass.B. comta was not stimulated to larviposit by oven dried frass or an India ink dot the color and shape of a fresh pellet from a host larva. The host habitat location and host finding process forB. comta and other tachinid species that deposit free-living maggots is discussed.     

The release ofOpius concolor andO. Concolor var.Siculus [Hym.: Braconidae] against the spring generation ofDacus oleae [Dipt.: Trypetidae] on Corfu

Releases ofOpius concolor Szepl. andO. concolor var.siculus Mon. were carried out in the spring to determine if they could be used as a biological control agent against the heavy infestation ofDacus oleae Gmel. which occurs on Corfu at that time. At an initial density of 300–400 parasites per tree the mean parasitism rates of 3rd stage larvae ranged from 30–50% in the 1st week following the release, indicating thatOpius could work well in the spring in the tall trees with large numbers of ripe and heavily infested fruits that are found on Corfu.     

Regulation of host larval development by the egg-larval endoparasitoidChelonus insularis [Hym.: Braconidae]

In laboratory studies the effect of parasitism by the egg-larval endoparasitoidChelonus insularis Cresson on the resulting larvae of 2 host species,Heliothis virescens (F.) andSpodoptera ornithogalli Guénée) were determined by comparing daily measurements of larval weights. Growth of parasitized larvae of both host species was slower than growth of unparasitized larvae. Injections of fluids from the female parasitoid's calyx or poison gland intoH. virescens eggs retarded subsequent larval growth. However, a combination of fluids from these 2 organs produced the most significant reduction in the host larval growth rate. The growth reducing factor(s) was also effective when injected into 5-day-old host larvae.     

The oviposition and life cycle ofAnthrax tigrinus, [Dipt.: Bombyliidae] a parasite of carpenter bees[Hym.: Xylocopidae]

Xylocopa virginica (L.) is readily parasitized byAnthrax tigrimus (De Geer). By using an x-ray technique and by observing field and laboratory populations of carpenter bees and their bombyliid parasites we located the parasite's eggs and followed their developmental stages through emergence. The acquisition of details on oviposition and associated behavior was facilitated by using a stereoscan electron microscope.

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Résumé Xylocopa virginica (L.) peut être parasité parAnthrax tigrinus (De Geer). Grace à l'emploi d'un appareil à rayson X et à des observations dans la nature et en laboratoire, on a localisé les œufs des parasites bombiliides et suivi le développement des stades larvaires depuis l'éclosion de l'œuf. L'utilisation du microscope électronique Stereoscan a facilité l'acquisition de détails sur la ponte et le comportement associé.