Auxin‐mediated lamina growth in tomato leaves is restricted by two parallel mechanisms

In the development of tomato compound leaves, local auxin maxima points, separated by the expression of the Aux/IAA protein SlIAA9/ENTIRE (E), direct the formation of discrete leaflets along the leaf margin. The local auxin maxima promote leaflet initiation, while E acts between leaflets to inhibit auxin response and lamina growth, enabling leaflet separation. Here, we show that a group of auxin response factors (ARFs), which are targeted by miR160, antagonizes auxin response and lamina growth in conjunction with E. In wild‐type leaf primordia, the miR160‐targeted ARFs SlARF10A and SlARF17 are expressed in leaflets, and SlmiR160 is expressed in provascular tissues. Leaf overexpression of the miR160‐targeted ARFs SlARF10A, SlARF10B or SlARF17, led to reduced lamina and increased leaf complexity, and suppressed auxin response in young leaves. In agreement, leaf overexpression of miR160 resulted in simplified leaves due to ectopic lamina growth between leaflets, reminiscent of e leaves. Genetic interactions suggest that E and miR160‐targeted ARFs act partially redundantly but are both required for local inhibition of lamina growth between initiating leaflets. These results show that different types of auxin signal antagonists act cooperatively to ensure leaflet separation in tomato leaf margins.     

Temporal and Spatial Distribution of Auxin Response Factor Genes During Tomato Flower Abscission

Abscission facilitates growth and reproduction and improves plant defenses against pathogens. This tightly regulated process is triggered by environmental cues and hormones such as ethylene and auxin. Because auxin is crucial for abscission, auxin response factors (ARFs) may play important roles in this process. Here, we examined changes in gene expression during abscission in tomato, focusing on regulation of genes encoding ARFs. Specifically, we analyzed the pattern of ARF gene expression in tomato flower pedicel explants treated with ethylene, the ethylene blocker 1-methylcyclopropene (1-MCP), or auxin to determine how auxin and ethylene affect ARF gene expression. In addition, we examined the spatial and temporal distribution of IAA during abscission by examining transgenic tomato plants expressing an IAA-inducible promoter fused to the GUS reporter gene (the P5::GUS ‘Chico III’ line). Flower removal from the explants quickly induced abscission by ethylene, which was inhibited by exogenous auxin or 1-MCP. During early abscission, auxin (or 1-MCP) regulated the expression of various ARFs, including ARF1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 7, 8-1, 9, 11, 12, 13, 13-1, 14, and 17, whereas ethylene had the opposite effect on most of these genes. Further analysis shows that during this stage, auxin may mediate the expression of ARF8-1, 9, 11, 12, 13, 13-1, and 14, whereas ethylene may mediate ARF13-1. During the later stage of abscission, ARF2, 8, 10, 11, and 19 were upregulated, and 8-1, 12, 13, and 13-1 were downregulated, compared with nonabscising parts of plants. Fluorometric GUS analysis indicated that GUS activity in the abscission zone remained stable at 4 h and sharply decreased after 8 h until abscission was complete (32 h).     

R2R3 MYB‐dependent auxin signalling regulates trichome formation,and increased trichome density confers spider mite tolerance on tomato

Unicellular and multicellular tomato trichomes function as mechanical and chemical barriers against herbivores. Auxin treatment increased the formation of II, V and VI type trichomes in tomato leaves. The auxin response factor gene SlARF4, which was highly expressed in II, V and VI type trichomes, positively regulated the auxin‐induced formation of II, V and VI type trichomes in the tomato leaves. SlARF4 overexpression plants with high densities of these trichomes exhibited tolerance to spider mites. Two R2R3 MYB genes, SlTHM1 and SlMYB52, were directly targeted and inhibited by SlARF4. SlTHM1 was specifically expressed in II and VI type trichomes and negatively regulated the auxin‐induced formation of II and VI type trichomes in the tomato leaves. SlTHM1 down‐regulation plants with high densities of II and VI type trichomes also showed tolerance to spider mites. SlMYB52 was specifically expressed in V type trichomes and negatively regulated the auxin‐induced formation of V type trichome in the tomato leaves. The regulation of SlARF4 on the formation of II, V and VI type trichomes depended on SlTHM1 and SlMYB52, which directly targeted cyclin gene SlCycB2 and increased its expression. In conclusion, our data indicates that the R2R3 MYB‐dependent auxin signalling pathway regulates the formation of II, V and VI type trichomes in tomato leaves. Our study provides an effective method for improving the tolerance of tomato to spider mites.     

microRNA159‐targeted SlGAMYB transcription factors are required for fruit set in tomato

The transition from flowering to fruit production, namely fruit set, is crucial to ensure successful sexual plant reproduction. Although studies have described the importance of hormones (i.e. auxin and gibberellins) in controlling fruit set after pollination and fertilization, the role of microRNA‐based regulation during ovary development and fruit set is still poorly understood. Here we show that the microRNA159/GAMYB1 and ‐2 pathway (the miR159/GAMYB1/2 module) is crucial for tomato ovule development and fruit set. MiR159 and SlGAMYBs were expressed in preanthesis ovaries, mainly in meristematic tissues, including developing ovules. SlMIR159‐overexpressing tomato cv. Micro‐Tom plants exhibited precocious fruit initiation and obligatory parthenocarpy, without modifying fruit shape. Histological analysis showed abnormal ovule development in such plants, which led to the formation of seedless fruits. SlGAMYB1/2 silencing in SlMIR159‐overexpressing plants resulted in misregulation of pathways associated with ovule and female gametophyte development and auxin signalling, including AINTEGUMENTA‐like genes and the miR167/SlARF8a module. Similarly to SlMIR159‐overexpressing plants, SlGAMYB1 was downregulated in ovaries of parthenocarpic mutants with altered responses to gibberellins and auxin. SlGAMYBs likely contribute to fruit initiation by modulating auxin and gibberellin responses, rather than their levels, during ovule and ovary development. Altogether, our results unveil a novel function for the miR159‐targeted SlGAMYBs in regulating an agronomically important trait, namely fruit set.     

miR390, Arabidopsis TAS3 tasiRNAs,and Their AUXIN RESPONSE FACTOR Targets Define an Autoregulatory Network Quantitatively Regulating Lateral Root Growth

Plants adapt to different environmental conditions by constantly forming new organs in response to morphogenetic signals. Lateral roots branch from the main root in response to local auxin maxima. How a local auxin maximum translates into a robust pattern of gene activation ensuring the proper growth of the newly formed lateral root is largely unknown. Here, we demonstrate that miR390, TAS3-derived trans-acting short-interfering RNAs (tasiRNAs), and AUXIN RESPONSE FACTORS (ARFs) form an auxin-responsive regulatory network controlling lateral root growth. Spatial expression analysis using reporter gene fusions, tasi/miRNA sensors, and mutant analysis showed that miR390 is specifically expressed at the sites of lateral root initiation where it triggers the biogenesis of tasiRNAs. These tasiRNAs inhibit ARF2, ARF3, and ARF4, thus releasing repression of lateral root growth. In addition, ARF2, ARF3, and ARF4 affect auxin-induced miR390 accumulation. Positive and negative feedback regulation of miR390 by ARF2, ARF3, and ARF4 thus ensures the proper definition of the miR390 expression pattern. This regulatory network maintains ARF expression in a concentration range optimal for specifying the timing of lateral root growth, a function similar to its activity during leaf development. These results also show how small regulatory RNAs integrate with auxin signaling to quantitatively regulate organ growth during development.     

Control of root cap formation by MicroRNA-targeted auxin response factors in Arabidopsis

The plant root cap mediates the direction of root tip growth and protects internal cells. Root cap cells are continuously produced from distal stem cells, and the phytohormone auxin provides position information for root distal organization. Here, we identify the Arabidopsis thaliana auxin response factors ARF10 and ARF16, targeted by microRNA160 (miR160), as the controller of root cap cell formation. The Pro(35S):MIR160 plants, in which the expression of ARF10 and ARF16 is repressed, and the arf10-2 arf16-2 double mutants display the same root tip defect, with uncontrolled cell division and blocked cell differentiation in the root distal region and show a tumor-like root apex and loss of gravity-sensing. ARF10 and ARF16 play a role in restricting stem cell niche and promoting columella cell differentiation; although functionally redundant, the two ARFs are indispensable for root cap development, and the auxin signal cannot bypass them to initiate columella cell production. In root, auxin and miR160 regulate the expression of ARF10 and ARF16 genes independently, generating a pattern consistent with root cap development. We further demonstrate that miR160-uncoupled production of ARF16 exerts pleiotropic effects on plant phenotypes, and miR160 plays an essential role in regulating Arabidopsis development and growth.     

番茄ARF2蛋白的生物信息学分析与亚细胞定位

克隆番茄(Solanum lycopersicum) ARF2基因,并分析其分子特性和亚细胞定位,为研究其功能提供基础．通过生物信息学方法分析SlARF2基因编码蛋白的理化性质和分子特性．采用RT-PCR技术从番茄果实cDNA中扩增SlARF2基因全长,并构建与黄色荧光蛋白(YFP)融合的pBA-ARF2-YFP表达载体,进而再通过农杆菌介导的遗传转化方法,将重组质粒转化到野生型番茄中,将得到的T1代转基因种子萌发,然后取根尖通过荧光显微镜观察了融合蛋白在活细胞内分布的特点．生物信息学分析结果表明,SlARF2是富含Ser、Leu、Gly和Pro以及具有ARF家族典型结构域的可溶性蛋白,其氨基酸序列与葡萄、木薯和拟南芥的同源性分别为70.08 %、66.94 %和60.87 %．经酶切和测序分析证实pBA-ARF2-YFP融合表达载体构建成功,此外,PCR分析表明融合蛋白在转基因植株中得到表达．经荧光显微镜观察,ARF2定位在细胞核中．表明转录因子SlARF2定位在细胞核中,对番茄果实发育和成熟起重要作用．     

A role for the miR396/GRF network in specification of organ type during flower development,as supported by ectopic expression of Populus trichocarpa miR396c in transgenic tobacco

The MIR396 family, composed of ath‐miR396a and ath‐miR396b in Arabidopsis, is conserved among plant species and is known to target the Growth‐Regulating Factor (GRF) gene family. ath‐miR396 overexpressors or grf mutants are characterised by small and narrow leaves and show embryogenic defects such as cotyledon fusion. Heterologous expression of ath‐miR396a has been reported in tobacco and resulted in reduction of the expression of three NtGRF genes. In this study, the precursor of the Populus trichocarpa ptc‐miR396c, with a mature sequence identical to ath‐miR396b, was expressed under control of the CaMV35S promoter in tobacco. Typical phenotypes of GRF down‐regulation were observed, including cotyledon fusion and lack of shoot apical meristem (SAM). At later stage of growth, transgenic plants had delayed development and altered specification of organ type during flower development. The third and fourth whorls of floral organs were modified into stigmatoid anthers and fasciated carpels, respectively. Several NtGRF genes containing a miR396 binding site were found to be down‐regulated, and the cleavage of their corresponding mRNA at the miR396 binding site was confirmed for two of them using RACE‐PCR analysis. The data obtained agree with the functional conservation of the miR396 family in plants and suggest a role for the miR396/GRF network in determination of floral organ specification.