OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE FISCAL SHRIKE

Ward, D. 1989. Behaviour associated with breeding of Crowned, Blackwinged and Lesser Blackwinged Plovers. Ostrich 60: 141–150.

The behaviour of Crowned Plovers Vanellus coronatus, Blackwinged Plovers V. melanopterus and Lesser Blackwinged Plovers V. lugubris in mate and territory acquisition and defence was documented and related to the habitats these birds occupy. The open habitat occupied by vanelline plovers makes them particularly vulnerable to predation and as a result, they have a highly-developed ability to detect potential predators and have developed a number of behavioural strategies to avoid predation. This has resulted in these birds having a higher reproductive success than that documented for other precocial birds.     

THE BEHAVIOUR AND BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE SHETLAND WREN.

The behaviour of T. t. zetlandicus is shown to differ in several respects from that of T. t. troglodytes and, less markedly, from the behaviour of some other insular races. Attention is called to a type of behaviour which it is suggested should be called " transference activity". It is argued that there is a close connection between the availability of food for the nestlings and the character of the pair-bond, and that modifications in the integrative pattern of adaptations are of importance in speciation.     

THE BEHAVIOUR AND BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE ICELAND WREN.

The behaviour and early breeding biology of the Iceland Wren are described from observations made in the field during June 1949, data obtained by previous observers are discussed, and comparisons are made between the characteristics of the Iceland Wren and related subspecies.     

BREEDING BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE QUAIL FINCH ORTYGOSPIZA ATRICOLUS

Summary

Nuttall, R.J. 1992. Breeding biology and behaviour of the Quail Finch Ortygospiza atricollis. Ostrich 63:110-117.

During a study of the breeding biology of the Quail Finch Ortygospiza atricollis, observations of nest-building, egg-laying, incubation and nestling periods, and nestling development in a grassland near Pietermaritzburg, South Africa were supplemented with observations of breeding behaviour in captivity. Mean clutch size was 4,5 and eggs were laid at intervals of approximately one day. Incubation began after the third or fourth egg was laid. An incubation period of 15–16 days and an estimated nestling period of 18–19 days was recorded. Incubation and brooding are shared by both sexes. Breeding success was low (26,7% ?28,6%), with most losses resulting from predation during either the egg-laying or incubation stages.     

OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BEHAVIOUR OF GREY AND RED-NECKED PHALAROPES

Observations were made on Grey and Red-Necked Phalaropes near Chesterfield Inlet, N.W.T., Canada, from the date of their local arrival, 13 June, until 21 July 1967. The similarity of the colour of the Grey Phalarope nuptial plumage to that of dead seaweed among which the birds often feed is suggested as possibly relevant to the evolution of this plumage. A mutual Head Up pre-copulatory display, first given by the female, is described in Grey Phalaropes. It is suggested to have the function of assuaging fear in the prospective partner and to be a prelude of only the first copulation between any two birds. Other displays are described and figured. Three full copulations, including their preliminaries, were observed in this species and two others in which the preliminary actions escaped observation. Three copulations took place on land and two on water. Of the three copulations observed with their preliminaries, two were initiated by some form of display by the female, and one, without any display, by the male. Eight attempted copulations were observed; all were initiated by males and all but one took place while the female was on land. One male which had just copulated was observed to attempt copulation with another female. In the course of three full or attempted copulations, another Grey Phalarope fluttered up against the mating pair. All Grey Phalarope copulations took place in a collective feeding area; little intra-species antagonism was seen and no evidence of territorial behaviour. All female Grey Phalaropes left the colony under observation on the night of 9–10 July; only two eggs had by then been laid in one nest and the female of one pair had not laid at all. Six copulations and six attempted copulations were observed in Red-necked Phalaropes; all took place on the water. Only in two of the copulations were the preliminaries observed; one was initiated by a display of the female, the other without any preliminary display by the male. Preliminary observations suggest specific differences in rate of spinning and in the preferred direction of spin. The functions and factors associated with spinning are discussed. Accelerated spinning with reduced frequency of pecks at the water by both members of a pair of Red-necked Phalaropes was observed once and may have been a form of display. Head scratching, observed once in a Red-necked Phalarope and several times in Wilson's, is by the direct method, supporting the view, based on the colour pattern of the downy young, that phalaropes are more akin to the sandpipers than to the avocets.     

THE BREEDING BEHAVIOUR AND BIOLOGY OF THE SHORT-BILLED FORM OF THE WHITE-TAILED BLACK COCKATOO CALYPTORHYNCHUS FUNEREUS

The breeding biology of the short-billed form of the White-tailed Black Cockatoo was studied at two main study areas, Coomallo Creek, an area with large tracts of uncleared lands, and Manmanning, an area of extensive clearing with little native vegetation remaining. The study was based on individually marked birds. The actions of females selecting and preparing their nest hollow ensured that other females were kept away from the area of that nest, resulting in nests being spaced out through the study areas. Eggs were laid between July and November with birds at Manmanning starting about four weeks after those at Coomallo Creek. Clutch size was a maximum of two and incubation took 28–29 days. Hatching success was higher for two-egg clutches than for one-egg clutches. There were no differences between fledging success for one-egg or two-egg clutches at either area, but fledging success at Manmanning was lower than that of Coomallo Creek. Rates of growth for weight and length of folded left wing were calculated for nestlings from both areas. These rates of growth were compared within areas between years and between areas within years. There were differences in rates of growth of nestlings from Coomallo Creek compared with those from Manmanning and these differences were related to shortages of food at Manmanning. The annual survival of tagged adults was calculated at 61–69% and that of juveniles over the first 12 months after fledging at 15%. The survival figures for adults seemed too low and it is suggested that the wearing of wing-tags may place the individual at a selective disadvantage compared with an untagged individual.     

BREEDING BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE GREY PHALAROPE PHALAROPUS FULCARIUS IN EAST SIBERIA

Studies were made in 1970 in the Chukotski Peninsula, in 1971 in the delta of the Indigirka river and in 1972 in the delta of the Yana river. Grey Phalaropes inhabit polygonal and tussocky moss-sedge tundra rich in swamps, lakes and (in June) temporary ponds. Population density in favourable habitats may reach 1–2 pairs ha^-1. Data on breeding chronology are presented, and various aggressive and courtship displays described. Most phalaropes seem to keep within a home range, sometimes large, during courtship time, but no defended territories and no forms of territorial behaviour exist. Many birds, both local nesters and wanderers, can feed on any pond. Sexual dimorphism is described. In 1970, three non-breeding cock-plumaged females were taken. Pairs are formed both before arrival and on the nesting grounds. All courtship displays are wholly or mostly initiated by females. In 1971, in the Indigirka delta, all the Grey Phalaropes were paired by 12 June, and stayed in pairs until the end of egg-laying. In 1970, on the northern Chukotsk, phalaropes seemed to form no (or very few) permanent pairs. Throughout June, most birds occurred in mixed flocks constantly moving between lakes or ponds. Copulation seemed to be promiscuous within the local population; polyandry cannot be excluded in some cases. Pairs appeared to be created only for the time of egglaying; probably, the only biological role of pair-formation is to find a male for incubating. Thus, a definite social system is not a species-specific feature; it can vary depending on local and yearly situations, including probably sex ratio. Nests are usually situated in very wet places, sometimes on the water edge. They can be found as little as 3 m apart, but are usually 40–80 m apart, or further. Incubation begins after the second or third egg. After the end of egg-laying, males drive females away from the nests, and pairs break up. Females and non-breeders gather in flocks and move onto the lakes of maritime tundra, and later on to the sea. The composition of the flocks is not constant: they often join together or part. Brooding males feed near their nests, sometimes in groups; not unfrequently they join flocks of females and non-breeders for some time. The normal average clutch-size is c. 4 eggs; when nesting was delayed (in the central Indigirka delta in 1971) the average was 3–61. The loss of nests was great in 1971; numbers of young on 1–3 August was 10 times lower than adult numbers in June.     

THE BREEDING BIOLOGY. AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE DOUBLEBANDED COURSER RHZNOPTZLUS AFRZCANUS (TEMMINCK)

In the southwestern part of the Kalahari region, the Double-banded Courser Rhinoptilus africanus is restricted to stony terrain with low vegetation and good visibility. Nests are always exposed, usually on flat ground, less often in hollows or slopes, and seldom on rises. Sixty per cent of nests were among mammal droppings.
Nest relief is rapid and occurs every two hours or so; side-throwing of small objects around the nest by the relieved bird is part of the ceremony. Incubation of the single egg takes about 26 days. The newly-hatched chick is weak and is fed exclusively by the parents for the first few days. It can fly at about six weeks of age. Breeding seems to be continuous, regardless of weather and season.
The calls, displays, comfort movements and ritualized intention movements are described and analysed as far as possible. Adult coursers are subjected to an intense heat load in summer, and have a number of behavioural heat-loss mechanisms which are described and discussed.
R. africanus and Cursorius rufus (both common coursers of the Kalahari) are briefly compared.     

ASPECTS OF THE BREEDING BIOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF THE SECRETARYBIRD SAGITTARIUS SERPENTARIUS NEAR PRETORIA,SOUTH AFRICA

Kemp, A. C. 1995. Aspects of the breeding biology and behaviour of the Secretarybird Sagittarius serpentarius near Pretoria, South Africa. Ostrich 66: 61–68.

Secretarybirds in three adjacent territories were monitored from 1977 to 1988 on grass- and croplands near Pretoria, South Africa. Most observations of breeding biology and behaviour confirmed or extended previous studies. There was no correlation between pairs in occupancy of territory, productivity or development periods of young: this confirms the flexible breeding abilities which are unusual for such a large bird. Some aspects of breeding biology (egg shape and texture, watering of chicks) and behaviour (Wings open and Up-down greeting displays) may be homologous with storks and important in understanding the phylogeny and evolution of the Sagitariidae and other diurnal raptors.     

SUPPLEMENTARY OBSERVATIONS ON THE BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE BOOTED EAGLE IN SOUTHERN AFRICA

Steyn, P. & Grobler, J. H. 1985. Supplementary observations on the breeding biology of the Booted Eagle in Southern Africa. Ostrich 56:151-156

Further observations on the biology of the Booted Eagle Hieraaetus pennatus in southern Africa are presented. Several nest sites in trees are described, and details of behaviour during the incubation and early nestling period are given. The down colour of nestlings is discussed. One juvenile returned to its natal area the following breeding season. In ninepair-years the replacement rate was 1,0 young/pair/year. Prey records confirm that birds predominate. The implications of the recent discovery of breeding in mid-winter in Namibia are discussed; there may be three Booted Eagle populations in southern Africa.     

BREEDING BIOLOGY OF THE BATELEUR

Watson, R. T. 1990. Breeding biology of the Bateleur. Ostrich 61: 13–23.

Observations were made on the breeding biology of the Bateleur Terathpoius ecaudataus between 1981 and 1984, in the central region of the Kruger Nabonal Park. Nests were uniformly distributed with a mean inter-nest distance of 5,1 km and density of 3,1 nests/100km². Single-egg clutches were laid from January to June, and laying appeared to be suressed by unusually high rainfall events. The mean productivity was 0,47 young per pair per year, an a breeding failures were mainly due to failure to lay or predation. Breeding adults chaned nest sites within their territory on average once every 2,8 years, but territories and pairs were stable from year to year. Both members of a pair put equal time into care of the young.