Measuring noise

High levels of noise encountered both in leisure activities and at workplaces can be somewhat annoying, but they can also cause hearing damage. In order to lessen these risks, some physical characteristics of the sound phenomenon need to be understood. The level of a sound is given in dB, a logarithmic unit in which simple addition is not available : 100 dB + 100 dB = 103 dB. The highest level of noise which can be tolerated by the human ear is considered to be 120 dB. Another component of sound characteristics is the frequency, which describes the height of a sound. The frequency is given in Hz, the human hearing field is comprised in the range of 20 to 20,000 Hz. Regarding the sensitivity of the ear, depending on the frequency, acusticians use a weighed dB, called dB(A), which takes into account a lower risk to hearing below 500 Hz and above 6 kHz. They also integrate the energy measured during a period of time to take the fluctuation of usual noise levels into account. So that currently, the levels of noise are often given in LAeq (equivalent to the level of continuous noise given in dBA). For moderate levels of noise, another weighted filter is used in sound level meters : the C curve, because low frequencies, although they are less dangerous for the ear, are more disturbing. In every day life, we sometimes have noise levels reaching 100 dB, and even 120 dB (fire alarms). Amplified music can reach 110 dBA, but a French regulation limits the output of PCPs (Walkmans) to 100 dB and the levels in concerts and discotheques to 105 dBA. At the workplace, the maximum level of noise allowed by French Law is 90 dBA for an 8 hour exposure, and 140 dB for peaks. In order to improve the protection of all workers in the EC, a recent European Directive will decrease the maximum level to 87 dBA before March 2006.     

High Source Levels and Small Active Space of High-Pitched Song in Bowhead Whales (Balaena mysticetus)

The low-frequency, powerful vocalizations of blue and fin whales may potentially be detected by conspecifics across entire ocean basins. In contrast, humpback and bowhead whales produce equally powerful, but more complex broadband vocalizations composed of higher frequencies that suffer from higher attenuation. Here we evaluate the active space of high frequency song notes of bowhead whales (Balaena mysticetus) in Western Greenland using measurements of song source levels and ambient noise. Four independent, GPS-synchronized hydrophones were deployed through holes in the ice to localize vocalizing bowhead whales, estimate source levels and measure ambient noise. The song had a mean apparent source level of 185±2 dB rms re 1 µPa @ 1 m and a high mean centroid frequency of 444±48 Hz. Using measured ambient noise levels in the area and Arctic sound spreading models, the estimated active space of these song notes is between 40 and 130 km, an order of magnitude smaller than the estimated active space of low frequency blue and fin whale songs produced at similar source levels and for similar noise conditions. We propose that bowhead whales spatially compensate for their smaller communication range through mating aggregations that co-evolved with broadband song to form a complex and dynamic acoustically mediated sexual display.     

长江和畅洲江段大型船舶的噪声特征及其对长江江豚的潜在影响

长江航运业的快速发展导致长江中船舶数量激增,相应的水体噪声污染可能对同水域的长江江豚（Neophocaena asiaeorientalis asiaeorientalis）产生一定的负面影响,本研究采用宽频录音设备对长江和畅洲北汊非正式通航江段的各类常见大型船舶（长>15m且宽>5m）的航行噪声进行了记录,并分析其峰值-峰值声压级强度（SPLp-p）和功率谱密度（PSD）等。结果表明,大型船舶的航行噪声能量分布频率范围较广（>100kHz）,但主要集中于中低频（<10kHz）部分,各频率（20Hz~144kHz）处的均方根声压级（SPLrms）对环境背景噪声在该频率处的噪声增量范围为3.7~66.5dB。接收到的1/3倍频程声压级（TOL）在各频率处都大于70dB,在8~140kHz频段内都高于长江江豚的听觉阈值。说明大型船舶的航行噪声可能会对长江江豚个体间的声通讯及听觉带来不利影响,如听觉掩盖。     

R-weighting provides better estimation for rat hearing sensitivity

Since sounds may induce physiological and behavioural changes in animals, it is necessary to assess and define the acoustic environment in laboratory animal facilities. Sound studies usually express sound levels as unweighted linear sound pressure levels. However, because a linear scale does not take account of hearing sensitivity-which may differ widely both between and within species at various frequencies-the results may be spurious. In this study a novel sound pressure level weighting for rats, R-weighting, was calculated according to a rat's hearing sensitivity. The sound level of a white noise signal was assessed using R-weighting, with H-weighting tailored for humans, A-weighting and linear sound pressure level combined with the response curves of two different loudspeakers. The sound signal resulted in different sound levels depending on the weighting and the type of loudspeaker. With a tweeter speaker reproducing sounds at high frequencies audible to a rat, R- and A-weightings gave similar results, but the H-weighted sound levels were lower. With a middle-range loudspeaker, unable to reproduce high frequencies, R-weighted sound showed the lowest sound levels. In conclusion, without a correct weighting system and proper equipment, the final sound level of an exposure stimulus can differ by several decibels from that intended. To achieve reliable and comparable results, standardization of sound experiments and assessment of the environment in animal facilities is a necessity. Hence, the use of appropriate species-specific sound pressure level weighting is essential. R-weighting for rats in sound studies is recommended.     

Portuguese Physical Education Instructors’ Exposure to Noise and Perception of Associated Risk

The purpose of this study was to quantify noise exposure of professional physical education instructors in Portugal, understand how they perceive risk and the effects associated with this exposure as well as examine the existence of health complaints potentially related to the exposure to noise. Quantification of sound level exposure comprised 200 measurements of different sport activities in state schools and private health clubs. Characterization of risk perception as well as symptomatology was performed by a three-part survey that provided to a sample of 48 physical education professionals and a comparison group of 52 non-professionals. Results showed the existence of high noise levels that may endanger physical education teachers’ health. These levels are significantly higher in health clubs. Health complaints were significantly higher in the group of professionals, especially concerning hearing difficulties, muffled hearing, intolerance to loud sounds, constant headaches, and irritability. The majority of the physical education instructors are exposed to high levels of sound pressure on a daily basis, which depending on their working hours may compromise their health. This study also reveals the importance of training as well as organizational and structural measures to reduce exposure to harmful noise levels during the performance of sports activities.     

城市噪声使树麻雀鸣唱的最低频率升高

随着城市化进程的不断加快,城市噪声水平显著升高。噪声会掩盖鸟类的声音信号,这无疑会影响鸟类的交流。在嘈杂的城市环境中,鸟类通常以高频率鸣唱来避免声信号被掩蔽。然而,较低的发声频率才是雄性品质的重要表征,提高发声频率可能会影响声信号对雌性的吸引力。因此,鸟类会在提高发声频率和保持较低频率之间进行权衡。为确定城市噪声对树麻雀(Passer montanus)鸣唱行为的影响,在沈阳市选取6个研究地点,比较了沈阳市区和近郊不同噪声水平下树麻雀繁殖期的鸣唱特征。在2019年4月至7月,使用定向麦克风录制了320只繁殖期树麻雀的鸣唱,并使用声级计测定噪声水平。研究结果显示,城市研究地点的噪声水平显著高于郊区研究地点。与安静郊区相比,城市嘈杂环境中的树麻雀鸣唱的最高频率、最低频率和主峰峰频显著较高,频宽更大,而时长没有差别。树麻雀鸣唱的最高频率、频宽、主峰峰频和时长均与噪声水平无显著相关,而最低频率与研究地点的噪声水平呈显著正相关。上述结果说明,在噪声环境中,树麻雀选择提高最低频率以利于声信号的传输。     

MRI gradient coil cylinder sound field simulation and measurement

High-field, high-speed Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) generates high sound levels within and nearby the scanner. The mechanism and process that produces the gradient magnetic field (a cylindrical electro-magnet, called the gradient coil cylinder, which produces a spatially and temporally varying magnetic field inside a static background magnetic field) is the primary source of this noise. This noise can cause difficulties in verbal communication in and around the scanner, heightened patient anxiety, temporary hearing loss and possible permanent hearing impairment for health care workers and patients. In order to effectively suppress the sound radiation from the gradient coil cylinder the sound field within and nearby the gradient coil needs to be characterized This characterization may be made using an analytical solution of the sound pressure field, computational simulation, measurement analysis or some combination of these three methods. This paper presents the computational simulation and measurement results of a study of the sound radiation from a head and neck gradient coil cylinder within a 4 Tesla MRI whole body scanner. The measurement results for the sound pressure level distribution along the centerline of the gradient coil cylinder are presented. The sound pressure distributions predicted from Finite Element Analysis of the gradient coil movement during operation and subsequent Boundary Element Analysis of the sound field generated are also presented. A comparison of the measured results and the predicted results shows close agreement. Because of the extremely complex nature of the analytical solution for the gradient coil cylinder, a treatment of the analytical solution and comparison to the computational results for a simple cylinder vibrating in a purely radial direction are also presented and also show close agreement between the two methods thus validating the computational approach used with the more complex gradient coil cylinder.     

Noise and the classical musician.

OBJECTIVES--To test the hypothesis that noise exposure may cause hearing loss in classical musicians. DESIGN--Comparison of hearing levels between two risk groups identified during the study by measuring sound levels. SETTING--Symphony orchestra and occupational health department in the west Midlands. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES--Hearing level as measured by clinical pure tone audiometry. RESULTS--Trumpet and piccolo players received a noise dose of 160% and 124%, respectively, over mean levels during part of the study. Comparison of the hearing levels of 18 woodwind and brass musicians with 18 string musicians matched for age and sex did not show a significant difference in hearing, the mean difference in the hearing levels at the high (2, 4, and 8 KHz) audiometric frequencies being 1.02 dB (95% confidence interval -2.39 to 4.43). CONCLUSIONS--This study showed that there is a potential for occupational hearing loss in classical orchestral musicians.     

Anthropogenic noise changes arthropod abundances

Anthropogenic noise is a widespread and growing form of sensory pollution associated with the expansion of human infrastructure. One specific source of constant and intense noise is that produced by compressors used for the extraction and transportation of natural gas. Terrestrial arthropods play a central role in many ecosystems, and given that numerous species rely upon airborne sounds and substrate‐borne vibrations in their life histories, we predicted that increased background sound levels or the presence of compressor noise would influence their distributions. In the second largest natural gas field in the United States (San Juan Basin, New Mexico, USA), we assessed differences in the abundances of terrestrial arthropod families and community structure as a function of compressor noise and background sound level. Using pitfall traps, we simultaneously sampled five sites adjacent to well pads that possessed operating compressors, and five alternate, quieter well pad sites that lacked compressors, but were otherwise similar. We found a negative association between sites with compressor noise or higher levels of background sound and the abundance of five arthropod families and one genus, a positive relationship between loud sites and the abundance of one family, and no relationship between noise level or compressor presence and abundance for six families and two genera. Despite these changes, we found no evidence of community turnover as a function of background sound level or site type (compressor and noncompressor). Our results indicate that anthropogenic noise differentially affects the abundances of some arthropod families. These preliminary findings point to a need to determine the direct and indirect mechanisms driving these observed responses. Given the diverse and important ecological functions provided by arthropods, changes in abundances could have ecological implications. Therefore, we recommend the consideration of arthropods in the environmental assessment of noise‐producing infrastructure.     

What is infrasound?

Definitions of infrasound and low-frequency noise are discussed and the fuzzy boundary between them described. Infrasound, in its popular definition as sound below a frequency of 20 Hz, is clearly audible, the hearing threshold having been measured down to 1.5 Hz. The popular concept that sound below 20 Hz is inaudible is not correct.

Sources of infrasound are in the range from very low-frequency atmospheric fluctuations up into the lower audio frequencies. These sources include natural occurrences, industrial installations, low-speed machinery, etc.

Investigations of complaints of low-frequency noise often fail to measure any significant noise. This has led some complainants to conjecture that their perception arises from non-acoustic sources, such as electromagnetic radiation.

Over the past 40 years, infrasound and low-frequency noise have attracted a great deal of adverse publicity on their effects on health, based mainly on media exaggerations and misunderstandings. A result of this has been that the public takes a one-dimensional view of infrasound, concerned only by its presence, whilst ignoring its low levels.     

Vessel noise cuts down communication space for vocalizing fish and marine mammals

Anthropogenic noise across the world's oceans threatens the ability of vocalizing marine species to communicate. Some species vocalize at key life stages or whilst foraging, and disruption to the acoustic habitat at these times could lead to adverse consequences at the population level. To investigate the risk of these impacts, we investigated the effect of vessel noise on the communication space of the Bryde's whale Balaenoptera edeni, an endangered species which vocalizes at low frequencies, and bigeye Pempheris adspersa, a nocturnal fish species which uses contact calls to maintain group cohesion while foraging. By combining long‐term acoustic monitoring data with AIS vessel‐tracking data and acoustic propagation modelling, the impact of vessel noise on their communication space was determined. Routine vessel passages cut down communication space by up to 61.5% for bigeyes and 87.4% for Bryde's whales. This influence of vessel noise on communication space exceeded natural variability for between 3.9 and 18.9% of the monitoring period. Additionally, during the closest point of approach of a large commercial vessel, <10 km from the listening station, the communication space of both species was reduced by a maximum of 99% compared to the ambient soundscape. These results suggest that vessel noise reduces communication space beyond the evolutionary context of these species and may have chronic effects on these populations. To combat this risk, we propose the application or extension of ship speed restrictions in ecologically significant areas, since our results indicate a reduction in sound source levels for vessels transiting at lower speeds.     

Sounds of shallow water fishes pitch within the quiet window of the habitat ambient noise

The habitat ambient noise may exert an important selective pressure on frequencies used in acoustic communication by animals. A previous study demonstrated the presence of a match between the low-frequency quiet region of the stream ambient noise (termed ‘quiet window’) and the main frequencies used for sound production and hearing by two stream gobies (Padogobius bonelli, Gobius nigricans). The present study examines the spectral features of ambient noise in very shallow freshwater, brackish and marine habitats and correlates them to the range of dominant frequencies of sounds used by nine species of Mediterranean gobies reproducing in these environments. Ambient noise spectra of these habitats featured a low-frequency quiet window centered at 100 Hz (stream, sandy/rocky sea shore), or at 200 Hz (spring, brackish lagoon). The analysis of the ambient noise/sound spectrum relationships showed the sound frequencies matched the frequency band of the quiet window in the ambient noise typical of their own habitat. Analogous ambient noise/sound frequency relationships were observed in other shallow-water teleosts living in similar underwater environments. Conclusions may be relevant to the understanding of evolution of fish acoustic communication and hearing.     

Middle-ear development

Laser interferometry was used to measure umbo velocity in the developing BALB/c mouse middle ear at 133 pure-tone frequencies between 2.0 kHz and 40.0 kHz, all at a constant 100 dB sound pressure level. Umbo velocities increased with age across the entire frequency range, and reached adult-like levels by about 19 days between 2.0 and 22.0 kHz. Velocities at 28.0 and 34.0 kHz took 27 and 52 days respectively to reach adult-like levels.A simple middle-ear model utilizing compliance, resistance, and inertia elements matched the general trends of our velocity results and provided an indication of the anatomical basis for the growth in umbo velocity. The model suggested that velocity development at the lowest frequencies may be attributed to increases in tympanic membrane compliance. The model also indicated that both the frictional resistance of the middle ear and the inertia of the tympanic membrane and ossicles decreased during the growth period.At frequencies below 20.0 kHz, age-related increases in umbo velocity coincided with improvements in Nj₁ thresholds recorded from the round window and evoked potential thresholds obtained from the cochlear nucleus. These results indicated that the functional development of the middle-ear plays a major role in the development of hearing in the mouse.Portions of this work were presented at the Fifteenth Meeting of the Association for Research in Otolaryngology     

背景噪声对人感知声音时间信息的影响

对声音时间信息的分辨在人和动物感知声音信息的过程中至关重要.在自然声环境中,声音信息总处于一定的噪声背景下.文章以间隔探测阈值为指标测定了人对纯音和噪声的间隔探测阈值,以及持续噪声背景对间隔探测阈值的影响.声音信号采用1000～10000 Hz的纯音信号和白噪声信号,声音强度为70 dB SPL.背景噪声为持续白噪声,强度分别为45、55、65 dB SPL.结果表明,对纯音信号,随着背景噪声强度增加,间隔探测阈值有升高的趋势.对噪声信号来说,45、55 dB SPL的背景噪声对噪声信号的间隔探测阈值无显著影响,但65 dB SPL的背景噪声使间隔探测阈值显著升高.研究结果提示,背景噪声能够在一定程度上影响人对声音时间信息的感知,影响的程度与背景噪声的强度有关.     

Ecosystem health assessment on the hill and gully area of Loess Plateau in Inner Mongolia,China

Maintenance of ecosystem health is the primary focus of a sound ecological restoration.Yet methods involved in quantifying and assessing the health level remain a challenge to the ecological community.In this study,we selected the hill and gully area of Loess Plateau,Inner Mongolia,China,as our study area.The soil and water erosions in this area continue to be responsible for many environmental problems in northern China because of its fragility and long disturbance history.In this study,we developed an assessment method of indicator system(AMIS)based on analytical hierarchy process(AHP),fuzzy mathematics.and the theory of net-hierarchy.At ecosystem or catchment scale,three sample areas,that is(1)intact vegetation(i.e., Aguimiao Natural Reserve,110°45'E,39°28'N),(2)reconstructed vegetation(Wufendigou Soil and Water Conservation Experimental Area,111°07'E 39°45'N),and (3)severely degraded vegetation(Yangquangou Catchment,111°06'E,39°45'N)in the hill and gully area of Loess Plateau in Inner Mongolia.China.were selected to examine ecosystem vigor,organizational structure,service function,and soil healm.We applied the AMIS for all three landscapes by categorizing each ecosystem into five health levels.Wle found that the health index for reconstructed vegetation were at levels of Ⅳ,Ⅱ,Ⅳ,and Ⅲ,while those of degraded vegetation were ranked at Ⅴ,Ⅳ,Ⅴ,and Ⅳ.Overall.the comprehensive ecosystem health index of reconstmcted vegetation was lower than that of intact vegetation but higher than that of degraded vegetation.The health index for reconstructed vegetation was at level Ⅲ.and that of degraded vegetation was still at level Ⅳ.The contributing values were:organization structure＞soil health＞vigor＞service function.Based on our results and assessments,we proposed several management recommendations and methods for restoring the regional ecosystems.     

Exposure to noise pollution across North American passerines supports the noise filter hypothesis

The noise filter hypothesis predicts that species using higher sound frequencies should be more tolerant of noise pollution, because anthropogenic noise is more intense at low frequencies. Recent work analysed continental‐scale data on anthropogenic noise across the USA and found that passerine species inhabiting more noise‐polluted areas do not have higher peak song frequency but have more complex songs. However, this metric of song complexity is of ambiguous interpretation, because it can indicate either diverse syllables or a larger frequency bandwidth. In the latter case, the finding would support the noise filter hypothesis, because larger frequency bandwidths mean that more sound energy spreads to frequencies that are less masked by anthropogenic noise. We reanalysed how passerine song predicts exposure to noise using a more thorough dataset of acoustic song measurements, and showed that it is large frequency bandwidths, rather than diverse syllables, that predict the exposure of species to noise pollution. Given that larger bandwidths often encompass higher maximum frequencies, which are less masked by anthropogenic noise, our result suggests that tolerance to noise pollution might depend mostly on having the high‐frequency parts of song little masked by noise, thus preventing acoustic communication from going entirely unnoticed at long distances.     

Noise in multiple-workstation open-plan computer rooms: measurements and annoyance.

Computers in the workplace have become very prevalent. As with the introduction of any new technology, unanticipated problems often develop. Noise in open-plan computer rooms and annoyance and perceived deterioration in performance associated with it also appears to be a problem that may be similarly categorized. An experimental investigation was undertaken as a result of frequent user complaints about the difficulty of concentrating and performing their work in the computer rooms of a large service organization. Two typical computer rooms were investigated. Noise levels were measured at random times during the working hours. The noise spectrum was found to be almost similar in both facilities. The 10-second A-weighted noise level for all frequencies ranged between 53 and 62 dB. Most noise energy was either in the high-frequency bands (above 2,000 Hz) or low-frequency bands (below 500 Hz). The highest noise energy levels were recorded at 8,000 Hz (between 64 and 73 dB). Least noise energy levels were recorded between 500 and 2,000 Hz (between 35 and 44 dB). The noise spectrum, thus, was substantially different from those of open-plan offices. Eighty-nine percent of the users questioned indicated their tasks required concentration. Fifty percent of all respondents rated the noise level between extremely annoying and unbearable and intolerable (scale values between 22 and 25 on a 25-point scale; 1 being noticeable but not objectionable and 25 being unbearable and intolerable); 10% of the respondents considered the noise very annoying; 20% of the respondents considered the noise levels moderately annoying; the remaining respondents did not seem to have a major problem. Conversational sound and computer-printer beeping sounds were reported to be most annoying by 90% of the respondents who considered the noise levels annoying. Constant arrival and departure of users, sound from keyboards, and ventilation equipment also appeared to be major contributing factors.     

An experimental study of effects of low-level sound in our daily life on a mental task

1. 1. It is often reported that any sound from the neighborhood disturbs one's reading or study, even though it is at a low level.

2. 2. This study was done to clarify the mechanism by which the low level sound in our daily life exerts an influence upon mental tasks.

3. 3. Two experiments were carried out, one by an ordinary, and the other by a social psychological test. In both, a random number generation test was applied as the mental exercise. The levels of presented sounds in each condition were 34–45 dBA in Leq.

4. 4. One of various conditions was in conformity with a setting of“low level noise”, where existence of low level sound is not recognized as an inevitable phenomenon but perceived as the noise.

5. 5. The quality of performance tends to be worse, though the quantitative side can be maintained.

Individual right whales call louder in increased environmental noise

The ability to modify vocalizations to compensate for environmental noise is critical for successful communication in a dynamic acoustic environment. Many marine species rely on sound for vital life functions including communication, navigation and feeding. The impacts of significant increases in ocean noise levels from human activities are a current area of concern for the conservation of marine mammals. Here, we document changes in calling behaviour by individual endangered North Atlantic right whales (Eubalaena glacialis) in increased background noise. Right whales, like several bird and primate species, respond to periods of increased noise by increasing the amplitude of their calls. This behaviour may help maintain the communication range with conspecifics during periods of increased noise. These call modifications have implications for conservation efforts for right whales, affecting both the way whales use sound to communicate and our ability to detect them with passive acoustic monitoring systems.     

Zoo soundscape: Daily variation of low-to-high-frequency sounds

Most studies assessing the impact of noises on zoo animal welfare did not measure sound frequencies outside of the human-hearing range (infrasounds and ultrasounds). Many nonhuman mammals can hear these frequencies, and because loud and variable soundscapes are potentially detrimental for animal welfare, this overlooked aspect of their acoustic environment could have important consequences. This study evaluated the soundscape of an urban zoo in a large frequency range (17.5–90,510 Hz) by measuring its average sound levels (L_eq) and variability (the difference between highest and lowest peaks). Sound data were collected for 24 hr in 25 locations (e.g., indoor, outdoor, near the amusement park). The soundscape was not considered problematic for animal welfare when looking at the average sound levels in most locations (<77-dB sound pressure level [SPL]), except for a few indoor areas and near the water park. Ultrasounds were rare, had low average sound levels, and were less variable in time. Infrasounds were always present and were the loudest and most variable sound frequencies. The soundscape was louder and more variable during the day and when visitors were present, suggesting that human-related activities were the sources of these augmentations. Indoor environments were generally louder than outdoor environments and touristic features; however, the water park was near 85-dB SPL during the day. On the basis of results, we suggest a series of mitigation actions to minimize noise-related stress in captive animals.