Brachiopod Shell Proteins: Their Functions and Taxonomic Significance

The calcareous shell of the Brachiopoda is interspersed withorganic material, chiefly protein and polysaccharide. The aminoacid compositions of these proteins reflect their geneticallycoded biosynthesis and are phylogenetically and taxonomicallyinformative. The taxonomic scheme based on protein data agreeswith the scheme based on morphological and anatomical criteria.These findings indicate Crania occupies an anomolous position. Brachiopoda exhibit two main types of calcification, carbonateand phosphate. The hydroxyproline found in phosphatic inarticulateshell protein suggests an analogy with bone collagen, but theglycine content is too low to allow triple-helix formation. The number and nature of polypeptide chains making up the shellproteins have been determined by amino and carboxy end-groupanalysis as well as disc electrophoresis with SDS. In the nativestate the shell proteins are molecular aggregates and are dissolvedby 8 M urea, suggesting that the inter-chain links are largelyH–bonds. Articulate shell protein probably serves as a resilient cushioningbetween calcite fibers to protect against mechanical shock.This would be permitted by the amorphous flexible characterof the polypeptide chain. The shell proteins of the Inarticulataare different,their chitin-protein laminated shell is more sheet-likeand its structure requires less cushioning. Study of fossil protein can shed further light on shell proteinancestry and hence on brachiopod phylogeny.     

Studies on Shell Formation : VII. The Submicroscopic Structure of the Shell of the Oyster Crassostrea virginica

The submicroscopic structure of the growing surface of the shell of the oyster, Crassostrea virginica, was studied by means of shadowed replicas. The outer edge of the prismatic region consists of a fine grained matrix enclosing crystals, the surfaces of which show a finely pebbled structure. Crystal size varies continously from 0.01 µ to 8 µ. The matrix surface shows no evidence of fibrous structure. The outer portions of the prismatic region exhibit a tile-like arrangement of large crystals separated by granular matrix 0.02 to 0.08 µ in thickness. The exposed crystal surfaces have indentations of varying form which appear as roughly parallel grooves spaced at intervals of approximately 0.3 µ. The final form of this region is believed to result from the random distribution of crystal seeds, which grow without orientation and through coalescence and growth come into contact, producing polygonal areas. The crystal arrangement of the nacreous region is one of overlapping rows of crystals in side to side contact, and with one end of each crystal free, permitting continued increase in length. Crystal angles and plane indices are presented.     

植物种子贮藏蛋白质及其细胞内转运与加工

高等植物种子成熟过程中贮存大量的贮藏蛋白质作为种子发芽和初期生长的重要营养来源。根据溶解性不同, 种子贮藏蛋白质可分为白蛋白、球蛋白、醇溶蛋白和谷蛋白4类。在种子胚发育过程中, 醇溶蛋白在粗面内质网合成后形成蛋白质聚集体, 直接出芽形成蛋白体并贮存其中。白蛋白、球蛋白和谷蛋白在粗面内质网以分子量较大的前体形式合成后, 根据各自的分选信号进入特定的运输囊泡, 经由受体依赖型运输/聚集体形式运输转运至蛋白质贮藏型液泡中, 然后经过液泡加工酶等的剪切转换为成熟型贮藏蛋白质并贮存其中。蛋白质的合成、分选、转运和加工等过程影响种子蛋白质的品质及含量。该文对种子贮藏蛋白质的分类和运输、加工以及这些过程对种子蛋白质品质和含量的影响进行了概述。     

植物种子贮藏蛋白质及其细胞内转运与加工

高等植物种子成熟过程中贮存大量的贮藏蛋白质作为种子发芽和初期生长的重要营养来源。根据溶解性不同,种子贮藏蛋白质可分为白蛋白、球蛋白、醇溶蛋白和谷蛋白4类。在种子胚发育过程中,醇溶蛋白在粗面内质网合成后形成蛋白质聚集体,直接出芽形成蛋白体并贮存其中。白蛋白、球蛋白和谷蛋白在粗面内质网以分子量较大的前体形式合成后,根据各自的分选信号进入特定的运输囊泡,经由受体依赖型运输/聚集体形式运输转运至蛋白质贮藏型液泡中,然后经过液泡加工酶等的剪切转换为成熟型贮藏蛋白质并贮存其中。蛋白质的合成、分选、转运和加工等过程影响种子蛋白质的品质及含量。该文对种子贮藏蛋白质的分类和运输、加工以及这些过程对种子蛋白质品质和含量的影响进行了概述。     

Temperature and Food Influence Shell Growth and Mantle Gene Expression of Shell Matrix Proteins in the Pearl Oyster Pinctada margaritifera

In this study, we analyzed the combined effect of microalgal concentration and temperature on the shell growth of the bivalve Pinctada margaritifera and the molecular mechanisms underlying this biomineralization process. Shell growth was measured after two months of rearing in experimental conditions, using calcein staining of the calcified structures. Molecular mechanisms were studied though the expression of 11 genes encoding proteins implicated in the biomineralization process, which was assessed in the mantle. We showed that shell growth is influenced by both microalgal concentration and temperature, and that these environmental factors also regulate the expression of most of the genes studied. Gene expression measurement of shell matrix protein thereby appears to be an appropriate indicator for the evaluation of the biomineralization activity in the pearl oyster P. margaritifera under varying environmental conditions. This study provides valuable information on the molecular mechanisms of mollusk shell growth and its environmental control.     

Biphasic and Dually Coordinated Expression of the Genes Encoding Major Shell Matrix Proteins in the Pearl Oyster Pinctada fucata

Regional expression patterns of shell matrix protein genes of Pinctada fucata were investigated using real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and in situ hybridization. Six shell matrix proteins examined in this study indicated a distinct biphasic pattern of expression, falling into one of the following three groups: (1) expressed only in the more dorsal region of the mantle (MSI60 and N16); (2) expressed only in the more ventral region (MSI31, Prismalin-14, and Aspein); and (3) expressed in both regions (nacrein). The ubiquity of the last protein probably reflects its general role as a carbonate-producing enzyme, while the other groups are interpreted as corresponding to the distinction between the two varieties of shell layers, the aragonitic nacreous layer and the calcitic prismatic layer. In addition, the constituent genes of each of these two groups indicated similar levels of relative expression among different sites even among different individuals, suggesting that the genes of each group share a single upstream regulatory factor, respectively, and that these genes are expressed in a dually coordinated fashion.     

骨形态发生蛋白在多器官组织分化发育中的作用及研究进展

骨形态发生蛋白(Bone morphogenetic proteins,BMPs)是一种多功能蛋白,是转化生长因子TGF-β超家族成员,参与骨器官发生、形成与再生的过程,同时对神经系统、造血系统的分化发育也有调控作用.目前,BMPs的研究已经涉及发育生物学、遗传学等多个领域,并在临床上具有广泛的应用前景.基于相关研究近状,对BMPs的分子结构特征及其在多器官组织分化发育中的作用进行分析,为进一步研究BMPs的体内活性及临床应用提供了理论借鉴和参考.     

Calcineurin Plays an Important Role in the Shell Formation of Pearl Oyster (Pinctada fucata)

Calcineurin (CN) is a multifunctional protein involved in many important physiological processes in mammalians, but the function of CN in mollusks is still largely unknown. In the present study, through the shell regeneration system, the changes of enzymatic activity of CN were determined in the process of shell regeneration in pearl oyster Pinctada fucata. CN was activated immediately and continuously in the shell regeneration process. The speed of shell regeneration was measured and the ultrastructure of inner shell surface was observed by scanning electron microscopy after inhibiting CN by intramuscular injection of immunosuppresant cyclosporine A (CsA). The results showed that the speed of shell regeneration was delayed and the morphology of calcite and aragonite in the inner shell surface became abnormal when CN was inhibited by CsA. Meanwhile, RT-PCR analysis revealed that the expression of P. fucata BMP-2 in mantle tissue decreased with CsA injection. In vitro secretion level of proteoglycans (PGs) in primary cultures of mantle cells was also decreased when mantle cells were exposed to CsA. Taken together, our results, for the first time, show that CN is involved in the shell formation through regulating the expression of Pf-BMP-2 in mantle tissue, which controls the secretion of PGs/GAGs of the mantle epithelial cells.     

Nacre Extract from Pearl Oyster Shell Prevents D-Galactose-Induced Brain and Skin Aging

Marine Biotechnology - Pearl oyster shells comprise two layers, a prismatic and nacreous layer, of calcium carbonate. The nacreous layer has been used in Chinese medicine since ancient times. In...     

阿尔茨海默氏病相关蛋白质及其作用机制研究进展

蛋白质组学技术被广泛的用于阿尔茨海默氏病(AD)的研究中.本文综述了已发现的AD脑组织、外周组织和动物模型中蛋白质差异表达和翻译后修饰变化,结合生物信息学分析结果,初步阐明了参与AD发病机制的关键蛋白质及其信号通路,为深入研究AD的病理生理机制和治疗提供了依据.     

Proteomics Analysis of the Nacre Soluble and Insoluble Proteins from the Oyster Pinctada margaritifera

Shell nacre is laid upon an organic cell-free matrix, part of which, paradoxically, is water soluble and displays biological activities. Proteins in the native shell also constitute an insoluble network and offer a model for studying supramolecular organization as a means of self-ordering. Consequently, difficulties are encountered in extraction and purification strategies for protein characterization. In this work, water-soluble proteins and the insoluble conhiolin residue of the nacre of Pinctada margaritifera matrix were analyzed via a proteomics approach. Two sequences homologous to nacre matrix proteins of other Pinctada species were identified in the water-soluble extract. One of them is known as a fundamental component of the insoluble organic matrix of nacre. In the conchiolin, the insoluble residue, four homologs of Pinctada nacre matrix proteins were found. Two of them were the same as the molecules characterized in the water-soluble extract. Results established that soluble and insoluble proteins of the nacre organic matrix share constitutive material. Surprisingly, a peptide in the conchiolin residue was found homologous to a prismatic matrix protein of Pinctada fucata, suggesting that prismatic and nacre matrices may share common proteins. The insoluble properties of shell matrix proteins appear to arise from structural organization via multimerization. The oxidative activity, found in the water-soluble fraction of the nacre matrix, is proposed as a leading process in the transformation of transient soluble proteins into the insoluble network of conchiolin during nacre growth.     

Retrograde Transport of Golgi-localized Proteins to the ER

The ER is uniquely enriched in chaperones and folding enzymes that facilitate folding and unfolding reactions and ensure that only correctly folded and assembled proteins leave this compartment. Here we address the extent to which proteins that leave the ER and localize to distal sites in the secretory pathway are able to return to the ER folding environment during their lifetime. Retrieval of proteins back to the ER was studied using an assay based on the capacity of the ER to retain misfolded proteins. The lumenal domain of the temperature-sensitive viral glycoprotein VSVGtsO45 was fused to Golgi or plasma membrane targeting domains. At the nonpermissive temperature, newly synthesized fusion proteins misfolded and were retained in the ER, indicating the VSVGtsO45 ectodomain was sufficient for their retention within the ER. At the permissive temperature, the fusion proteins were correctly delivered to the Golgi complex or plasma membrane, indicating the lumenal epitope of VSVGtsO45 also did not interfere with proper targeting of these molecules. Strikingly, Golgi-localized fusion proteins, but not VSVGtsO45 itself, were found to redistribute back to the ER upon a shift to the nonpermissive temperature, where they misfolded and were retained. This occurred over a time period of 15 min–2 h depending on the chimera, and did not require new protein synthesis. Significantly, recycling did not appear to be induced by misfolding of the chimeras within the Golgi complex. This suggested these proteins normally cycle between the Golgi and ER, and while passing through the ER at 40°C become misfolded and retained. The attachment of the thermosensitive VSVGtsO45 lumenal domain to proteins promises to be a useful tool for studying the molecular mechanisms and specificity of retrograde traffic to the ER.     

Rab6 Is Required for Multiple Apical Transport Pathways but Not the Basolateral Transport Pathway in Drosophila Photoreceptors

Polarized membrane trafficking is essential for the construction and maintenance of multiple plasma membrane domains of cells. Highly polarized Drosophila photoreceptors are an excellent model for studying polarized transport. A single cross-section of Drosophila retina contains many photoreceptors with 3 clearly differentiated plasma membrane domains: a rhabdomere, stalk, and basolateral membrane. Genome-wide high-throughput ethyl methanesulfonate screening followed by precise immunohistochemical analysis identified a mutant with a rare phenotype characterized by a loss of 2 apical transport pathways with normal basolateral transport. Rapid gene identification using whole-genome resequencing and single nucleotide polymorphism mapping identified a nonsense mutation of Rab6 responsible for the apical-specific transport deficiency. Detailed analysis of the trafficking of a major rhabdomere protein Rh1 using blue light-induced chromophore supply identified Rab6 as essential for Rh1 to exit the Golgi units. Rab6 is mostly distributed from the trans-Golgi network to a Golgi-associated Rab11-positive compartment that likely recycles endosomes or transport vesicles going to recycling endosomes. Furthermore, the Rab6 effector, Rich, is required for Rab6 recruitment in the trans-Golgi network. Moreover, a Rich null mutation phenocopies the Rab6 null mutant, indicating that Rich functions as a guanine nucleotide exchange factor for Rab6. The results collectively indicate that Rab6 and Rich are essential for the trans-Golgi network–recycling endosome transport of cargoes destined for 2 apical domains. However, basolateral cargos are sorted and exported from the trans-Golgi network in a Rab6-independent manner.     

The Class C Vps Complex Functions at Multiple Stages of the Vacuolar Transport Pathway

The Class C Vps complex, consisting of Vps11, Vps16, Vps18, and Vps33, is required for SNARE-mediated membrane fusion at the lysosome-like yeast vacuole. However, Class C vps mutants display more severe and pleiotropic phenotypes than mutants specifically defective in endosome-to-vacuole transport, suggesting that there are additional functions for the Class C Vps complex. A SNARE double mutant which is defective for both Golgi-to-endosome and endosome-to-vacuole trafficking replicates many of the phenotypes observed in Class C vps mutants. We show that genetic interactions exist between Class C vps alleles and alleles of the Class D vps group, which are defective in the docking and fusion of Golgi-derived vesicles at the endosome. Moreover, the Class D protein Vac1 was found to physically bind to the Class C Vps complex through a direct association with Vps11. Finally, using a random mutagenic screen, a temperature-conditional allele which shares many of the phenotypes of mutants which are selectively defective in Golgi-to-endosome trafficking was isolated ( vps11–3^ts ). Collectively, these results indicate that the Class C Vps complex plays essential roles in the processes of membrane docking and fusion at both the Golgi-to-endosome and endosome-to-vacuole stages of transport.     

拟南芥无机氮素转运蛋白及其磷酸化调控研究进展

氮元素是植物必需的营养元素之一, 氮素供需失衡会严重影响植物的生长发育。无机氮(硝酸根NO₃^-和铵根NH₄⁺)是植物体内氮素的主要来源, 对其有效吸收和利用依赖于多种类型转运蛋白的协同作用。其中, 部分无机氮素转运蛋白的活性受到可逆磷酸化作用的精准调控。该文将对模式植物拟南芥(Arabidopsis thaliana)中硝酸根和铵根转运蛋白的分类、结构、定位和功能特点等进行总结, 并重点对可逆磷酸化调控转运蛋白的分子机制加以阐述。     

近岸海域贝壳与海水重金属含量的相关性研究

近海海域易于受到城市工业等人类活动的污染,重金属污染是其中之一,持续的低度污染也会造成近海生物体内污染物累积,影响海域渔业和生态环境。通过对大连周边6个海区内采集的牡蛎壳体分析测定发现,壳体中重金属的含量与该海区海水中重金属含量线性相关,其中Zn、Cd、Pb和Cu的相关系数分别为0．9430、0．9822、0．9930、0．9815,生物富集系数在1000左右。实验分析手段采用二阶微分阳极溶出伏安极谱,支持电解液为pH4．0～4．5的Hac-NaAc缓冲溶液,标准偏差RSD=0．11～1．16,实验回收率93～105%。研究结果表明,(1)牡蛎壳体可以替代贝类软组织作为监测海域环境的载体,指示海域环境重金属的变化情况; (2)牡蛎壳体层状的生长过程与同时期水质的状况密切相关,层状物理结构便于分层分析,通过本实验相关性的验证,完全有可能建立一种海水水质短期历史追溯的技术方法。     

A New Method to Extract Matrix Proteins Directly from the Secretion of the Mollusk Mantle and the Role of These Proteins in Shell Biomineralization

Considering the continuous and substantive secretory ability of the mantle in vitro, we report a new technique to produce shell-matrix proteins by inducing the mantle, after removal from the organism's body, to secrete soluble-matrix proteins into phosphate buffer. By this method, a large amount of matrix proteins could be obtained in 2 h. Experiments involving in vitro calcium carbonate crystallization and organic framework calcium carbonate crystallization indicated that these proteins retain high bioactivity and play key roles in shell biomineralization. Phosphate buffer-soluble proteins secreted by the margin of the mantles (MSPs) were used to reconstruct the stages in the growth of the prismatic layer of the decalcified organic frameworks. The MSPs were observed to aggregate calcites in vitro, and this ability enabled the mollusk to form big calcites in the prismatic layer. During shell biomineralization, an important stage after the self-assembly of the biomacromolecules and the formation of crystals is the assembly of the two parts to form a firm structure. Moreover, a new type of matrix protein, functioning as the binding factor between the crystals and the organic frameworks, was shown to exist in the phosphate buffer-soluble proteins secreted by the central part of mantles (CSPs). Nanoscale-sized bowl-like aragonites, with heights of ～800 nm, were induced by CSPs in vitro. This method is a successful example of obtaining functional proteins through secretion by animal tissues.     

Mimetic Membrane System to Carry Multiple Antigenic Proteins from Leishmania amazonensis

Liposomes have long been used as models for lipid membranes and for the reconstitution of a single or multiple proteins. Also, liposomes have adjuvant activity in vaccines against several protozoan or bacterial organisms. Thus, the main objective of the present study was to obtain a crude extract of detergent-solubilized proteins of Leishmania amazonensis amastigotes and reconstitute them into liposomes. Neutral and zwiterionic detergents were less efficient than an ionic detergent. In order to obtain efficient solubilization using only sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS), the effects of detergent and protein concentration and incubation time were studied. The maximum of solubilized proteins was obtained instantaneously using a ratio of 0.5 mg/ml of protein to 0.1% (w/v) detergent at 4°C. Dipalmitoylphosphatidylcholine (DPPC), dipalmitoylphosphatidylserine (DPPS) and cholesterol in a weight ratio of 5:1:4 were used for protein reconstitution into liposomes using the cosolubilization method, yielding 60% of incorporation. The incorporation of multiple parasite proteins results in a vesicular diameter of proteoliposomes of about 140 nm, presenting a final lipid weight ratio for DPPC, DPPS and cholesterol of 1:1:5, with high stability. The detergent-solubilized proteins of L. amazonensis amastigotes present in the proteoliposome, when analyzed by SDS-polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, include a wide range of parasite-incorporated proteins. BALB/c mice inoculated with these proteoliposomes were able to produce antibodies against the proteins reconstituted in DPPC:DPPS:cholesterol liposomes and were partially resistant to infection with L. amazonensis promastigotes. These results indicate that this system can be used as a possible vaccine against L. amazonensis.